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U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

BUEEAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTKY. 



SPECIAL REPORT 

ON 

DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OP 

DR. D. E. SALMON, 

CHIEF OF THE BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 



Drs. Michener, Law, Harbaugh, Trumbower, Liautard, 
holcombe, huidekoper, and dickson." 



PUBLISHED BY AUTHORITY OP THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 



WASHINGTON": 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 
1890. 



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TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



Page. 
Letter of transmittal, 

By Dr. D. E. Salmon, Chief of Bureau 7 

Methods of administering medicines, 

By Ch. B. Michener, V. S 9 

Diseases of the digestive organs, 

By Ch. B. Michener, V. S 15 

Diseases of the urinary organs, 

By James Law, F. E. C. V. S 59 

Diseases of the respiratory organs, 

By W. H. Harbaugh, V. S 87 

Diseases of the generative organs, 

By James Law, P. E. C. V. S 135 

Diseases of the nervous system, 

By M. E. Trumbower, V. S 181 

Diseases of the heart and blood vessels, 

By M. E. Trumboweu, V. S 219 

Diseases of the eye, 

By James Law, F. E. C. V. S 247 

Lameness, 

By A. Liautard, M. D., V. S 269 

Diseases of the fetlock, ankle, and foot, 

By A. AHolcombe, D. V. S 357 

Diseases of the skin, 

By James Law, F. E. C. V. S 419 

Wounds and their treatment, 

By Ch. B. Michener, V. S .*. ,... 447 

General diseases, 

By Eush Shippen Huidekoper. M. D., Vet 461 

Shoeing, 

By Wiixiam Dickson, V. S 529 

3 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Page. 

Plate I. Digestive apparatus 58 

II. Bots 58 

III. Intestinal worms 58 

■ IV. Longitudinal section through, kidney __ ... 86 

V. Microscopic anatomy of kidney 86 

VI. Microscopic anatomy of kidney 86 

. VII. Calculi and instrument for removal 86 

VIII. Instruments used in difficult labor 180 

IX. Normal presentations 180 

X. Abnormal presentations - 180 

" XI. Abnormal presentations 180 

XII. Abnormal presentations 180 

XIII. Abnormal presentations 180 

XIV. Anterior presentations 180 

XV. Position of the left lung 134 

XVI. The nervous system 218 

XVII. Interior of chest, showing position of heart and diaphragm 246 

XVIII. Circulatory apparatus 246 

■ XIX. Theoretical section of the horse's eye „ 268 

XX. Skeleton of the horse 356 

XXI. Superficial layer of muscles 356 

XXII. Splint 356 

XXIII. Ring-bone 356 

1 XXIV. Various types of spavin 356 

■ XXV. Bone-spavin 356 

XXVI. Bone-spavin 356 

XXVII. Dislocation of shoulder and elbow, Bourgelat's apparatus 356 

XXVIII. The sling in use 356 

- XXIX. Anatomy of foot 418 

XXX. Anatomy of foot 418 

XXXI. Foundered feet 418 

» XXXII. Ring-bone and navicular disease 418 

/ XXXIII. Quarter crack and remedies 418 

XXXIV. Sound and contracted feet 418 

XXXV. Diseases of the skin 446 

XXXVI. Mites that infest the horse 446 

-XXXVII. General diseases. Inflammation , 528 

XXXVIII. General diseases. Inflammation 528 

XXXIX. Glanders, nasal septum of horse, right side, showing acute lesions. 528 
XXXX. Glanders, middle region of nasal septum, left side, showing ulcers.. 528 
XXXXI. Glanders, posterior half of nasal septum, right side, showing cica- 
trices 528 

XXXXII. Shoeing 542 

XXXXIII. Shoeing 542 

XXXXIV. Shoeing.. 542 

5 



LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL 



Sir: I have the honor to submit herewith a report upon diseases of 
the horse, which has been prepared with great care by a number of the 
most eminent members of the veterinary profession in the United States. 
The production of a work of this character is a task of such magnitude 
that it could not be undertaken by any one man with a prospect of its 
early completion. It was deemed best, therefore, to divide the subject 
into sections and to place the preparation of each section in the hands 
of a veterinarian whose practical experience and reputation would in- 
sure a valuable contribution. By adopting this plan the contents of 
the volume have been made ready for the printer within a year from 
the time the work was begun. While, on account of this method of 
preparation, there may not be quite the same uniformity of style and 
treatment which would be expected in a volume written by a single 
author, it is hoped that this will not be found objectionable, and the 
speedy completion and the co-operation of authors who have given 
special attention to their subjects will prove of great advantage. 

The need of a work on the diseases of the horse, which could be dis- 
tributed to farmers as a safe and scientific guide in the treatment of 
this species of our domesticated animals, either when affected with 
slight disorders or serious illness, has long been felt. This obvious 
want has led to the preparation of the present volume, which is designed 
as the first of a series to cover the diseases of all varieties of farm ani- 
mals. The writer would not advise the farmer in ordinary circumstances 
to dispense with his veterinarian, any more than he would advise him 
to treat the diseases of his own family, to manufacture his own furni- 
ture, or to be his own blacksmith. There are, however, only too many 
cases in which the veterinarian can not be procured in time for success, 
if at all; and, consequently, the farmer who knows or has the means of 
learuing the nature of the disease and the proper treatment will be able 
to save an animal when otherwise he would lose one. It is common for 
intelligent people to laugh at the idea of attempting to make every man 
his own doctor, his own veterinarian, or his own carpenter, and in an 
ideal condition of society no doubt this would be absurd. But under 
the conditions which actually obtain on our farms, the farmer who can 
use tools, if but awkwardly, often finds it extremely convenient to 
temporarilly usurp the functions of the carpenter; and he also finds 
that in many cases he must treat his ailing animals or allow them to 

7 



8 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. 

suffer without treatment. Knowing- this to be the case, is it not far 
better for the stock-owner to have at his command the advice of veteri- 
narians eminent in their profession than for him to follow the absurd, 
often barbarous methods of treatment which have been handed down 
by tradition from the empiricism and ignorance of long-past ages? 

It is an extremely difficult matter to divest medical literature of tech- 
nical terms and expressions more or less incomprehensible to the gen- 
eral reader. This has made scientific medicine a sealed book to the 
masses of our people, and there is no subject of which they are more 
ignorant. An attempt has been made in this work to present the mat- 
ter in as simple language as possible, and while some of the authors 
have been more happy than others in this respect, it is believed that 
no great difficulty will be met with in any of the articles. 

While the subject has been treated in language of a more or less 
popular style and the book is intended as a guide to the farmer, its in- 
trinsic scientific value should not be entirely lost sight of. In many 
respects it is a notable contribution to existing knowledge, and it will 
be prized by the veterinarian not less than by the farmer. No doubt 
there are some defects in this first edition which the experience of the 
future will enable us to remedy, but as a whole the book is one which 
can not fail to be of immense service in educating horse-owners and in 
hastening the adoption of humane and scientific treatment in the dis- 
orders which afflict man's most patient and faithful servant. 

The illustrations have been very carefully drawn by Mr. Haines, the 
greater part of the subjects being selected by Dr. Cooper Curtice. In 
cases where they have been copied due credit has been given on the 
plates, but it should be stated here that we are indebted to Dr. John S. 
Billings, of the Army Medical Museum, for the use of the Auzoux models 
and a number of specimens of diseased feet from which drawings were 
made. 

Very respectfully, 

D. E. SALMON, 
Chief of Bureau of Animal Industry. 

Hon. J. M. Kusk, 

/Secretary of Agriculture, 



SPECIAL REPORT 



DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 



METHODS OF ADMINISTERING MEDICINES. 



By CH. B. MICHENER, V. S., 

Professor of Cattle Pathology and Obstetrics at the New York College of Veterinary Sur- 
geons, Inspector of the Bureau of Animal Industry, etc. 



Medicine may enter the body through any of the following designated 
channels: First, by the mouth; second, by the lungs and upper air- 
passages; third, by the skin; fourth, under the skin (hypodermic 
methods) ; fifth, by the rectum ; and, sixth, by intra- venous injections. 

(1) By the mouth. — Medicines can be given by the mouth in the 
form of powders, balls, drenches, and electuaries. 

Powders. — These should be as finely pulverized as possible, in order 
to secure a rapid solution and absorbtion. Their action is in this way 
facilitated and intensified. Powders must be free from any irritant or 
caustic action upon the mouth. Those that are without any disagree- 
able taste or smell are readily eaten on the feed or taken in the drink- 
ing water. When placed on the feed they should first be dissolved or 
suspended in water and thus sprinkled on the feed. If mixed dry the 
horse will often leave the medicine in the bottom of his manger. 

Balls. — When properly made these are cylindrical in shape, 2 inches 
in length and about three-fourths of an inch in diameter. They should 
be fresh, but, if necessary to keep them some time, they should be made 
up with glycerine, or some such agent, to prevent them from becoming 
too hard. Very old, hard balls, are sometimes passed whole with the 
manure, without being acted upon at all. Paper is to be wrapped 
around balls when given; it should be thin but firm ; toilet paper is the 
best. Balls are preferred to drenches when the medicine is extremely 
disagreeable or nauseating ; when the dose is not too large ; when the 

9 



10 

horse is ugly to drench; when the medicine is intended to act slowly. 
Certain medicines can not, or should not, be made into balls — medicines 
requiring to be given in large doses, oils, caustic substances, unless 
diluted and thoroughly mixed with the vehicle, deliquescent or efflores- 
cent salts. Substances suitable for balls can be made up by the 
addition of honey, sirup, soap, etc., when required for immediate use. 
Gelatine capsules of different sizes are now obtainable and are a con- 
venient means of giving medicines in ball form. 

Drenches are to be given when the medicine is liquid, when the dose 
is large, and when we desire speedy action. 

Electuaries are medicines mixed mostly with licorice-root powder, 
molasses, or sirup to the consistency of honey, or a "soft-solid." They 
are intended, chiefly, to act locally upon the mouth and throat. They 
are given with a wooden paddle or strong long-handled spoon. 

When balls are to be given we should observe the following direc- 
tions: In shape they should be cylindrical, of the size above mentioned, 
and soft enough to be easily compressed by the fingers. If made round 
or egg-shaped, if too long or too hard, they are liable to become fixed 
in the gullet and cause choking. Balls may be given with the "balling- 
gun" (obtainable at any veterinary instrument maker's) or by the hand. 
If given by the hand a mouth speculum or gag should be used to prevent 
the animal from biting the hand or crushing the ball. Always loosen 
the horse before attempting to give a ball; if tied he may break his 
halter and injure himself or the one giving the ball. With a little 
practice it is much easier to give a ball without the mouth-gag, as the 
horse always fights more or less against having his mouth forced open. 
The tongue must be firmly grasped with the left hand and gently pulled 
forward; the ball, slightly moistened, is then to be placed with the tips 
of the fingers of the right hand as far back into the mouth as possible; 
as the tongue is loosened it is drawn back into the mouth and carries 
the ball backward with it. The mouth should be kept closed for a 
minute or two. We should always have a pail of water at hand to 
offer the horse after balling. This precaution will often prevent him 
from coughing out the ball or its becoming lodged in the gullet. 

It is. very often, impossible to get balls properly made, or to induce 
owners or attendants to attempt to give them, and for these reasons med- 
icines by the mouth are mostly given in the form of drenches. When 
medicine is to be given as a drench we must be careful to use enough 
water or oil to thoroughly dissolve or dilute it; more than this makes the 
drench bulky and is unnecessary. Insoluble medicines, if not irritant or 
corrosive, may be given simply suspended in water ; the bottle to be 
well shaken immediately before giving the drench. The bottle used for 
drenching purposes should be clean, strong, and smooth about its 
neck ; it should be without shoulders, tapering, and of a size to suit 
the amount to be given. A horn or tin bottle may be better, in that 
they are not so easily broken by the teeth. If the dose is a small one 



11 

the horse's head may be held up by the left hand, while the medicine is 
poured into the mouth by the right. The left thumb is to be placed in 
the angle of the lower jaw, and the fingers spread out in such a manner 
as to support the lower lip. Should the dose be large, the horse ugly, 
or the attendant unable to support the head as directed above, the 
head is then to be held up by running the tines of a long-handled 
wooden fork under the noseband of the halter ; the halter-strap or a 
rope may be fastened to the nose-band and thrown over a limb, beam, 
or through a pulley suspended from the ceiling. Another way of sup- 
porting the head is to place a loop in the end of a rope, and introduce 
this loop into the mouth just behind the upper front teeth or tusks, the 
free end to be run through a pulley, as before described, and held by 
an assistant. It is never to be fastened, as the horse might do himself 
serious injury if made fast. The head is to be elevated just enough to 
prevent the horse from throwing the liquid out of his mouth. The line 
of the face should be horizontal, or only the least particle higher. If 
the head is drawn too high the animal can not swallow with ease, or 
even with safety. (If this is doubtful, just fill your mouth with water, 
throw back the head as far as possible, and then try to swallow). The 
person giving the drench should stand on some object in order to reach 
the horse's mouth, on a level, or a little above it. The bottle or horn is 
then to be introduced at the side of the mouth, in front of the molar 
teeth, in an upward direction. This will cause the horse to open his 
mouth, when the base of the bottle is to be suddenly elevated, and 
about 4 ounces of the liquid allowed to escape on the tongue as far back 
as possible, care being used not to get the neck of the bottle between 
the back teeth. The bottle is to be immediately removed, and if the 
horse does not swallow this can be encouraged by rubbing the fingers 
or neck of the bottle against the roof of the mouth, occasionally remov- 
ing them. As soon as this is swallowed repeat the operation until he 
has taken all the drench. If coughing occurs, or if, by any mishap, the 
bottle should be crushed in the mouth, lower the head immediately. 

Do not rub, pinch, or pound the throat, nor draw out the tongue 
when giving a drench. These in no way aid the horse to swallow and 
oftener do harm. 

Drenches must never be given through the nose; they are liable to 
strangle the animal, or, if the medicine is irritating, it sets up an in- 
flammation of the nose, fauces, windpipe, and sometimes the lungs. 
Cattle are easily drenched by simply holding them by the nose with the 
left hand, while the medicine is poured into the mouth with the right. 
Balls are not to be given to cattle ; they often become imbedded in the 
great mass of food in the stomach and act tardily or not at all. 

(2) Medicines are administered to the lungs and upper air passages 
by insufflation, inhalation, and nasal douche. Insufflation consists of 
blowing an impalpable powder directly into the nose. It is but rarely 
resorted to. Gaseous and volatile medicines are given by inhalation^ 



12 

as is also medicated steam or vapor. Of the gases used we may men- 
tion, as the chief ones, sulphurous acid gas, and occasionally chlorine. 
The animal or animals are to be placed in a tight building, where these 
gases are generated, until the atmosphere is sufficiently impregnated 
with them. Volatile medicines, as the anaesthetics, (ether, chloroform, 
etc.), are only to be given by the attending surgeon. Medicated vapors 
are to be inhaled by placing a bucket containing hot water, vinegar and 
water, scalded hay or bran, to which carbolic acid, iodine, or other 
medicines have been added, in the bottom of a long grain bag. The 
horse's nose is to be inserted into the top of the bag, and he thus in- 
hales the "medicated steam." Care must be taken not to have this 
hot enough to scald the animal. Scalding bran or hay is often thus 
inhaled to favor discharges in sore throat or " distemper." 

The nasal douche is employed by the veterinarian in treating some 
local diseases of the nasal chambers. Special appliances and profes- 
sional knowledge are necessary when using liquid medicines by this 
method. It is not often resorted to, even by veterinary surgeons, since 
the horse, as a rule, objects very strongly to this mode of medication. 

(3) By the Skin. — Medicines are often administered to our hair- 
covered animals by the skin, yet care must be taken in applying some 
medicines, as tobacco- water, carbolic acid solutions, etc., over the entire 
body, as poisoning and death follow in some instances from absorption 
through the skin. We must also exercise care, and not apply poisonous 
medicines over very large raw or abraded surfaces, for the same rea- 
sons. For domestic animals medicines are only to be applied by the 
skin for local purposes or diseases, as laudanum, chloroform liniment, 
etc., for neuralgia. 

(4) Under, the Skin — Hypodermic Method. — Medicines are fre- 
quently given by the hypodermic syringe, under the skin. It will not 
be safe for any but medical or veterinary practitioners to use this form 
of medication, since the medicines thus given are powerful poisons. 
There are many precautions to be observed; a knowledge of anatomy 
is indispensible. 

(5) By the Bectum. — Medicines may be given by the rectum when 
we can not give or retain them by the mouth ; when we want a local 
action on the last gut; to destroy the small worms infesting the large 
bowels; to stimulate the peristaltic motion of the intestines and cause 
evacuation ; and to nourish the body. Medicines are here given in the 
form of suppositories, or as liquid injections — enemas. 

Suppositories are conical bodies made up of oil of theobroma and 
opium (or whatever medicine is indicated in special cases), and are in- 
troduced into the rectum or vagina to allay irritation and pain of these 
parts. They are not much used in veterinary practice. 

Enemas, when given for absorption, should be small in quantity, 
neutral or slightly acid in reaction, and of a temperature of from 90° 
to 100° F. These, like foods given by the rectum, should only be in- 



13 

troduced after the last bowel has been emptied by the hand, or by 
copious enemas of tepid water. Enemas or clysters are mostly given 
to aid the action of physics, and should then be in quantities sufficient 
to distend the bowel aud cause the animal to eject them. Simple water, 
salt and water, or soap and water, in quantities of a gallon or more, 
may be given every half hour. It is best that the horse retain them for 
some little time, as the liquid serves to moisten the dung and favor 
a passage. Stimulating enemas (turpentine 2 ounces, in linseed oil 6 
ounces), should be administered after those already mentioned have 
emptied the last bowel, with the purpose of still further increasing the 
natural worm-like movement of the intestines and aiding the purging 
medicine. 

Liquids may be thrown into the rectum by the means of a large 
syringe, or different kinds of complicated pumps. A very good " in- 
jection pipe" can be made by any tinsmith at a trifling cost, and should 
be constantly on hand at every stock-farm. It consists of a funnel, 
about 6 inches deep and 7 inches in diameter, which is to be furnished 
with a pipe-like prolongation, placed at right angles to it, from 14 to 16 
inches in length, and carefully rounded and soldered at the ends. This 
pipe must be perfectly smooth, in order to prevent injury to the rectum. 
Introduce this pipe to its full extent, after thoroughly oiling it, and pour 
the liquid into the funnel rapidly. The pressure of the atmosphere will 
force the liquid into the bowels. For all ordinary purposes this instru- 
ment is quite as good as the more complicated and expensive ones. 

Ordinary cold water, or even ice-cold water, is highly recommended 
by many as a rectal injection for horses overcome by the excessive heat 
of summer, and may be given by this simple pipe. 

(6) Intea- Venous Injections. — Injections directly into veins are 
to be practiced by medical or veterinary practitioners only, as are prob- 
ably some other means of giving medicines — intra-trachael injections, 
etc. 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 



By CH. B. MICHENER, V. S., 

Professor of Cattle Pathology and Obstetrics at the New York College of Veterinary Sur- 
geons, Inspector Bureau of Animal Industry, etc. 



It will not prove an easy task to write " a plain account of the com- 
mon diseases, with directions for preventive measures, hygienic care, 
and the simpler forms of medical treatment" of the digestive organs of 
the horse. This study includes a careful consideration of the food and 
drink of our animals, their quality, quantity, analyses, etc. This, of 
itself, is material for a book. Being limited as to space, one must en- 
deavor to give simply an outline ; to state the most important facts, 
leaving many gaps, and continually checking the disposition to write 
anything like a full description as to cause, prevention, and modes of 
treatment of disease. 

These articles are addressed entirely to farmers and stock-owners, 
and I must ask my professional brethren to bear this in mind, when 
disposed to complain of a want of scientific treatment of the subjects. 

Water. — It is generally held, at least in practice, that any water that 
stock can be induced to drink is sufficiently pure for their use. This 
practice occasions losses that would startle us if statistics were at hand. 
Water that is impure from the presence of decomposing organic mat- 
ter, such as is found in wells and ponds in close proximity to manure 
heaps and cess-pools, is frequently the cause of diarrhea, dysentery, 
and many other diseases of stock, while water that is impregnated with 
different poisons, and contaminated with specific media of contagion, 
produces death in very many instances. 

Considering first the quantity of water required by the horse, it may 
be stated that when our animals have access to water continually they 
never drink to excess. Were the horse subjected to ship-voyages, or 
any other circumstances where he must depend upon his attendant for 
the supply of water, it may be roughly stated that each horse requires 
a daily average of about 8 gallons of water. This will vary some- 
what upon the character of his food ; if upon green food, less water 
will be needed than when fed upon dry hay and grain. 

16 



16 

The time of giving water should be carefully studied. At rest, the 
horse should receive water at least three times a day ; when at work, 
more frequently. The rule here should be to give in small quantities 
and often. There is a popular fallacy that if a horse is warm he 
should not be allowed to driuk, many claiming that the first swallow 
of water '"founders" the animal, or produces colic. This is erroneous. 
No matter how warm a horse may be, it is always entirely safe to allow 
him from six to ten swallows of water. If this is given on going into 
the stable, he should be given at once a pound or two of hay and 
allowed to rest about an hour before feeding. If water be now offered 
him it will in many cases be refused, or at least he will drink but spar- 
ingly. The danger, then, is not in the " first swallow " of water, but is 
due to the excessive quantity that the animal will take when warm if 
not restrained. 

Water should never be given to horses when it is ice-cold. It may 
not be necessary to add hot water, but we should be careful in placing 
water-troughs about our barns to have them in such position that the 
sun may shine upon the water during the winter mornings. Water, 
even though it be thus cold, seldom produces serious trouble if the 
horse has not been deprived for a too great length of time. 

In reference to the purity of water Smith, in his " Veterinary Hy- 
giene," classes spring, deep-well water, and upland surface-water as 
wholesome ; stored rain-water and surface-water from cultivated land 
as suspicious; river water to which sewage gains access and shallow- 
well water as dangerous. The water that is used for drinking purposes 
for stock so largely throughout some States can not but be impure. I 
refer to those sections where there is an impervious clay subsoil. It 
is the custom to scoop or hollow out a large basin in the different pas- 
tures. During rains these basins become filled with water. The clay 
subsoil being almost impervious acts as a jug, and there is no escape 
for the water except by evaporation. Such water is stagnant, but 
would be kept comparatively fresh by subsequent rains were it not for 
the fact that much organic matter is carried into these ponds by sur- 
face drainage during each succeeding storm. This organic matter soon 
undergoes decomposition, and as the result we find diseases of differ- 
ent kinds much more prevalent where this water is drunk than where 
the water-supply is wholesome. Again, it must not be lost sight of 
that stagnant surface-water is much more certainly contaminated than 
is running water by one diseased animal of the herd, thus endangering 
the remainder. 

The chief impurities of water may be classed as organic and inorganic. 
The organic impurities are either animal or vegetable substances. 
The salts of the metals are the inorganic impurities. Lime causes 
hardness of water, and occasion will be taken to speak of this when 
describing intestinal concretions. Salts of lead, iron, and copper are 
also frequently found in water, and will be referred to hereafter. 



17 

About the only examination of water that can be made by the aver- 
age stpck raiser is to observe its taste, color, smell, and clearness. 
Pure water is clear and is without taste or smell. It should possess a 
slight bluish tint. 

Chemical and microscopic examination will frequently be necessary 
in order to detect the presence of certain poisons, bacteria, etc., and can 
of course only be conducted by experts. 

Foods and feeding. — In this place one can not attempt anything like a 
comprehensive discussion of the subject, and I must content myself 
with merely giving a few facts as to the different kinds of food, prepa- 
ration, digestibility, proper time of feeding, quality, and quantity. Im- 
proper feeding and watering will doubtless account for over one-half of 
the digestive disorders met with in the horse, and hence the reader can 
not fail to see how very important it is to have some proper ideas con- 
cerning these subjects. 

Kinds of food. — In this country horses are fed chiefly upon hay, grass, 
roots, oats, corn, wheat, and rye. Many think that they could be fed on 
nothing else. Stewart, in "The Stable Book," gives the following ex- 
tract from Loudon's Encyclopedia of Agriculture, which is of interest 
at this point : 

In some sterile countries they (horses) are forced to subsist on dried fish, and even 
on vegetable mold; in Arabia, on milk, flesh-balls, eggs, broth. In India horses are 
variously fed. The native grasses are judged very nutritions. Few, perhaps no oats 
are grown ; barley is rare, and not commonly given to horses. In Bengal a vetch, 
something like the tare, is used. On the western side of India a sort of pigeon-pea, 
called gram (Cicer arietinum) forms the ordinary food, with grass while in season, and 
hay all the year round. Indian corn or rice is seldom given. In the West Indies 
maize, guinea corn, sagar corn tops, and sometimes molasses, are given. In the 
Mahratta country salt, pepper, and other spices are made into balls, with flour and 
butter, and these are supposed to produce animation and to fine the coat. Broth 
made from sheep's head is sometimes given. In France, Spain, and Italy, besides the 
grasses, the leaves of limes, vines, the tops of acacia, and the seeds of the carob-tree 
are given to horses. 

For information as to the nutritive value, chemistry, and classifica- 
tion of the different kinds of food, I will refer the reader again to 
Smith's Veterinary Hygiene. 

We can not, however, leave aside entirely here a consideration of the 
digestibility of foods ; and by this we mean the readiness with which 
foods undergo those changes in the digestive canal that fit them for 
absorption and deposition as integral parts of the animal economy. 

The age and health of the animal will, of course, modify the digesti- 
bility of foods, as will also the manner and time of harvesting, preserv- 
ing, and preparing the foods. 

In the horse digestion takes place principally in the intestines, and 
here, as in all other animals and with all foods, we find that a certain 
part only of the provender is digested; another portion is indigested. 
This proportion of digested and indigested food must claim passing 
notice at least, for if the horse receives too much food a large portion 
11035 2 



18 

of digestible food must pass out unacted upon, entailing not only the 
loss of this unused food, but also calling for an unnecessary expendi- 
ture of vital force on the part of the digestive organs of the horse. It 
is thus that, in fact, too much food may make an animal poor. 

In selecting food for the horse we should remember the anatomical 
arrangement of the digestive organs, as well as the physiological func- 
tions performed by each organ. Foods must be wholesome, clean, and 
sweet; the hours of feeding regular; the mode of preparation found 
by practical experience to be the best must be adhered to, and cleanli- 
ness in preparation and administration must be observed. 

The length of time occupied by stomach digestion in the horse varies 
with the different foods. Hay and straw pass out of the stomach more 
rapidly than oats. It would seem to follow, then, that oats should be 
given after hay, for if reversed the hay would cause the oats to be sent 
onward into the intestines before being fully acted upon by the stomach, 
and as a result produce indigestion. Experience confirms this. There 
is another good reason why hay should be given first, particularly if 
the horse is very hungry or if exhausted from overwork, namely, it 
requires more time in mastication (insuring proper admixture of saliva) 
and can not be bolted as are the grains. In either instance water must 
not be given soon after feeding, as it washes or sluices the food from 
the stomach before it is "fitted for intestinal digestion. 

The stomach begins to empty itself very soon after the commence- 
ment of feeding, and continues rapidly while eating. Afterwards the 
passage is slower, and several hours are required before the stomach is 
entirely empty. The nature of the work required of the horse must 
guide us in the selection of his food. Rapid or severe labor can not be 
performed on a full stomach. For such horses food must be given in 
small quantity and fed to them about two hours before going to their 
work. Even horses intended for slow work must never be engorged 
with bulky, innutritious food immediately before going to labor. The 
small stomach of the horse would seem to lead us to the conclusion 
that this animal should be fed in small quantities and often, which, in 
reality, should be done. The disproportion between the size of the 
stomach and the amount of water drank tells us plainly that the horse 
should always be watered before feeding. One of the common errors 
of feeding, and the one that produces more digestive disorders than 
any other, is to feed too soon after a hard day's work. This must never 
be done. If a horse is completely jaded it will be found beneficial to 
give him an alcoholic stimulant on going into the stable. A small 
quantity of hay may then be given, but his grain should be withheld 
for one or two hours. These same remarks will apply with equal force 
to the horse that for any reason has been fasting for a long time. After 
a fast feed less than the horse would eat; for if allowed too much the 
stomach becomes engorged, its walls paralyzed, and "colic" is almost 
Sure to follow. The horse should be fed three or four times a day j nor 



19 

will it answer to feed him entirely upon concentrated food. Bulky food 
must be given to detain the grains in their passage through the intes- 
tinal tract; bulk also favors distention, and thus mechanically aids 
absorption. To horses that do slow work for the greater part of the 
time, chopped or cut hay fed with crushed oats, ground corn, etc., is 
the best manner of feeding, as it gives the required bulk, saves time, 
and half the labor of feeding. 

Sudden changes of diet are always dangerous.— When desirous of chang- 
ing the food, do so very gradually. If a horse is accustomed to oats a 
sudden change to a full meal of corn will almost always sicken him. If 
we merely intend to increase the quantity of the usual feed, this again 
must be done gradually. The quantity of food given must always be 
in proportion to the amount of labor to be performed. If a horse is to 
do less work, or rest entirely from work for a few days, see that he re- 
ceives less feed. If this was observed even on Saturday night and 
Sunday there would befewer cases of "Monday morning sickness, "such 
as colics and lymphangitis. Foods should also be of a more laxative 
nature when the horse is to stand for some days. Above all things we 
should avoid feeding musty or moldy foods. These are very frequent 
causes of disease of different kinds. Lung trouble, as bronchitis and 
" heaves," often follows the use of such food. The digestive organs 
always suffer from moldy or musty foods. Musty hay is generally con- 
sidered to produce disorder of the kidneys; and all know of the danger 
to pregnant animals from feeding upon ergotized grasses or grains. 

Leaving these somewhat general considerations, I will refer briefly to 
the different kinds of foods : 

Hay. — The best hay for horses is timothy. It should be about one 
year old, of a greenish color, crisp, clean, fresh, and possessing a sweet, 
pleasant aroma. Even this good hay, if kept for too great a length of 
time, loses part of its nourishment, and while it may not be positively 
injurious, it is hard, dry, and indigestible. New hay is difficult to di- 
gest, produces much salivation (slobbering) and occasionally purging 
and irritation of the skin. If fed at all it should be mixed with old hay. 

Second crop or aftermath. — This is not considered good hay for horses, 
but it is prized by some farmers as a good food for milch cows, they 
claiming that it increases the flow of milk. The value of hay depends 
upon the time of cutting, as well as care in curing. Hay should be 
cut when in full flower, but before the seeds fall; if left longer, it be- 
comes dry and woody and lacks in nutrition. An essential point in 
making hay is that when the crop is cut it should remain as short a 
time as possible in the field. If left too long in the sun it loses color, 
flavor, and dries or wastes. Smith asserts that one hour more than is 
necessary in the sun causes a loss of 15 to 20 per cent, in the feeding 
value of hay. It is impossible to state any fixed time that hay must 
have to cure, this depending, of course, upou the weather, thickness of 



20 

the crop, and many other circumstances ; but it is well known that in 
order to preserve the color aud aroma of hay it should be turned or 
tedded frequently and cured as quickly as possible. On the other hand, 
hay spoils in the mow if harvested too green or when not sufficiently 
dried. Mow-burnt hay produces disorder of the kidneys and bowels 
and causes the horse to fall off in condition. Musty or moldy hay has 
often been said to produce that peculiar disease known variously as 
cerebro-spinal meningitis, putrid sore throat, or choking distemper. 

The average horse, getting grain, should be allowed from 10 to 12 
pounds of good hay a day. It is a mistake of many to think that horses 
at light work can be kept entirely on hay. Such horses soon become 
pot-bellied, fall off in flesh, and do not thrive. The same is true of 
colts; unless the latter are fed with some grain they grow up to be 
long, lean, gawky creatures, and never make as good horses as those 
accustomed to grain, with or in addition to their hay. 

Straw. — The straws are not extensively fed in this country, and when 
used at all they should be cut and mixed with hay and ground or 
crushed grains. Wheat, rye, and oats straw are the ones most used, 
and of these oats straw is most easily digested and contains the most 
nourishment. Pea and bean straw are occasionally fed to horses, the 
pea being preferable according to most writers. 

Chaff. — Wheat and rye chaff should never be used as a food for 
horses. The beards frequently become lodged in the mouth or throat 
and are productive of more or less serious trouble. In the stomach and 
intestines they often serve as the nucleus of the "soft concretions" 
which are to be described when treating of obstructions of the digestive 
tract. 

Oat chaff, if fed in small quantities and mixed with cut hay or corn- 
fodder, is very much relished by horses. It is not to be given in large 
quantities, as I have repeatedly witnessed a troublesome and sometimes 
fatal diarrhea to follow the practice of allowing horses or cattle free ac- 
cess to a pile of oat chaff. 

Grains. — Oats take precedence of all grains as a food for horses, as 
the ingredients necessary for the complete nutrition of the body exist 
in them in the best proportions. Oats are besides more easily digested 
and a larger proportion absorbed and converted into the various tissues 
of the body. Care must be taken in selecting oats. According to Stew- 
art the best oats are one year old, plump, short, hard, clean, bright, aud 
sweet. New oats are indigestible. Kiln-dried oats are to be refused 
as a rule, for even though originally good this drying process injures 
them. Oats that have sprouted or fermented are injurious and should 
never be fed. Oats are to be given either whole or crushed ; whole in 
the majority of instances, crushed to old horses and those having de- 
fective teeth. Horses, also, that bolt their feed are best fed upon 
crushed oats and out of a manger large enough to permit of spreading 
the grain in a thin layer. 



21 

The average horse requires, in addition to the allowance of hay above 
spoken of, about 12 quarts of good oats daily. The best oats are those 
cut about one week before being fully ripe. Not only is the grain richer 
at this time in nutritive materials, but there is also less waste from 
" scattering " than if left to become dead ripe. Moldy oats, like hay 
and straw, not only produce serious digestive disorders, but have been 
the undoubted cause of outbreaks of that dread disease in horses, al- 
ready referred to, characterized by inability to eat or drink, sudden 
paralysis, and death. 

Wheat and rye. — These grains are not to be used as food for horses 
except in small quantities, bruised or crushed, and fed mixed with other 
grains or hay. If fed alone, in any considerable quantities, they are 
almost certain to produce digestive disorders, laminitis (founder), and 
similar troubles. They should never constitute more than one-fourth 
of the grain allowance, and should always be ground or crushed. 

Bran. — The bran of wheat is the one most used, and its value as a 
feeding stuff is variously estimated. It is not to be depended upon if 
given alone, but may be fed with other grains. It serves to keep the 
bowels open. Sour bran is not to be given. It disorders the stomach 
and intestines and may even produce serious results. 

Maize — Corn. — This grain is not suitable as an exclusive food for 
young horses, as it is deficient in salts. It is fed whole or ground. 
Corn on the cob is commonly used as the food for horses affected with 
" lampas." If the corn is old and is to be fed in this manner it should 
be soaked in pure, clean water for ten or twelve hours. Corn is better 
given ground, and fed in quantities of from 1 to 2 quarts at a meal 
mixed with crushed oats or wheat bran. We must, be very particular 
in giving corn to a horse that is not accustomed to its use. It must 
be commenced in small quantities and very gradually increased. I 
know of no grain more likely to produce what is called acute indiges- 
tion than corn if these directions are not observed. 

Linseed. — Ground linseed is occasionally fed with other foods to keep 
the bowels open and to improve the condition of the skin. It is of par- 
ticular service during convalescence, when the bowels are sluggish in 
their action. Linseed tea is very often given in irritable or inflamed 
conditions of the digestive organs. 

Boots — Potatoes. — These are used as an article of food for the horse 
in many sections. If fed raw and in large quantities they often produce 
indigestion. Their digestibility is favored by steaming or boiling. 
They possess, in common with other roots, slight laxative properties. 

Beets. — These are not much used as food for horses. 

Carrots. — These make a most excellent food, particularly during sick- 
ness. They improve the appetite and slightly increase the action of the 
bowels and kidneys. They possess also certain alterative properties. 
The coat becomes smooth and glossy when carrots are fed. Some vet- 
erinary writers claim that chronic cough is cured by giving carrots for 



22 

sometime. The roots may be considered then as an adjunct to the reg- 
ular regime, and if fed in small quantities are highly beneficial. 

Grasses. — Grass is the natural food of horses. It is composed of a 
great variety of plants, differing widely as to the amount of nourish- 
ment contained, some being almost entirely without value as foods and 
only eaten when there is nothing else obtainable, others are positively 
injurious or even poisonous. Noneof the grasses are sufficient to keep the 
horse in condition for work. Horses thus fed are "soft," sweat easily, 
purge, and soon tire on the road or when at hard work. To growing 
stock grass is indispensible, and there is little or no doubt but that it acts 
as an alterative when given to horses accustomed to grain and hay. It 
must be given to such subjects in small quantities at first. The stomach 
and intestines undergo rest, and recuperate if the horse is turned to 
grass for a time each year. It is also certain that during febrile diseases 
grass acts almost as a medicine, lessening the fever and favoring re- 
covery; wounds heal more rapidly than when the horse is on grain, and 
some chronic disorders (chronic cough for instance) disappear entirely 
when at grass. In my experience grass does more good when the horse 
crops it himself. This may be due to the sense of freedom he enjoys 
at pasture, to the rest to his feet and limbs, and for many similar 
reasons. When cut for him it should be fed fresh or when but slightly 
wilted. 

PREPARATION OF FOODS. 

Foods are prepared for feeding for any of the following reasons : To 
render the food more easily eaten; to make it more digestible; to 
economize in amount; to give it some new property, and to preserve 
it. We have already spoken of the preparation of drying, and need 
not revert to this again, as it only serves to preserve the different foods. 
Drying does, however, change some of the properties of food, i. e„ re- 
moves the laxative tendency of most of them. 

The different grains are more easily eaten when ground, crushed, or 
even boiled. Bye or wheat should never be given whole, and even of 
corn it is found that there is less waste when ground, and, in common 
with all grains, it is more easily digested than when fed whole. 

Hay and fodder are economized when cut in short pieces. Not only 
will the horse eat the necessary amount in a shorter time, but it will be 
found that there is less waste, and the mastication of the grains (whole 
or crushed) fed with them is insured. 

Reference has already been made to those horses that bolt their food, 
and we need only remark here that the consequences of such ravenous 
eating may be prevented if the grains are fed with cut hay, straw, or 
fodder. Long or uncut hay should also be fed, even though a certain 
amount of hay or straw is cut and fed mixed with grain. 

One objection to feeding cut hay mixed with ground or crushed grains, 
and wetted, must not be overlooked during the hot months. Such food 



23 

is apt to undergo fermentation if not fed directly after it is mixed, and 
the mixing-trough even, unless frequently scalded and cleaned, becomes 
sour and enough of its scrapings are given with the food to produce 
flatulent (wind) colic. A small amount of salt should always be mixed 
with such food. 

Bad hay should never be cut simply because it insures a greater con- 
sumption of it ; bad foods are dear at any price and should never be fed. 
We have before spoken of the advantage of boiling roots. Not only 
does this render them less liable to produce digestive disorders, but it 
also makes them clean. Boiling or steaming grains is to be recom- 
mended when the teeth are poor, or when the digestive organs are weak. 
Of ensilage as a food for horses I have no experience, but am inclined 
to think that (and this opinion is based upon the imperfect manner in 
which the crop is often stored) disordered digestion would be more fre- 
quent were it extensively fed. 

DISEASES OF THE TEETH. 

Dentition. — This covers the period during which the young horse is 
cutting his teeth, from birth to the age of five years. With the horse 
more difficulty is experienced in cutting the second or permanent teeth 
than with the first or milk teeth. There is a tendency among farmers 
and many veterinarians to pay too little attention to the teeth of young 
horses. Percivall relates an instance illustrative of this, that is best 
told in his own words : 

I was requested to give my opinion concerning a horse, then in his fifth year, who 
had fed so sparingly for the last fortnight, and so rapidly declined in condition in 
consequence, that his owner, a veterinary surgeon, was under no light apprehensions 
ahout his life. He had himself examined his mouth, without having discovered any 
defect or disease; though another veterinary surgeon was of opinion that the diffi- 
culty or inability manifested in mastication, and the consequent cudding, arose from 
preternatural bluntness of the surfaces of the molar teeth, which were, in conse- 
quence filed, but without beneficial result. It was after this that I saw the horse ; 
and I confess I was, at my first examination, quite as much at a loss to offer any sat- 
isfactory interpretation as others had been. While meditating, however, after my 
inspection, on the apparently extraordinary nature of the case, it struck me that I 
had not seen the tusks. I went back into the stable and discovered two little tu- 
mors, red and hard, in the situation of the inferior tasks, which, when pressed, gave 
the animal insufferable pain. I instantly took out my pocket-knife and made cru- 
cial incisions through them both, down to the coming teeth, from which moment the 
horse recovered his appetite and by degrees his wonted condition. 

The mouths of young horses should also be frequently examined to 
see if one or more of the milk teeth are not remaining too long, caus- 
ing the second teeth to grow in crooked, in which case the first teeth 
should be removed by the forceps. 

Irregularities of teeth. — There is quite a fashion of late years, espe- 
cially in large cities, to havehorses' teeth regularly "floated" or " rasped" 
by " veterinary dentists." In some instances this is very beneficial, 
while in most cases it is entirely unnecessary. From the character of 



24 

the food, the rubbing or grinding surface of the horse's teeth should be 
rough. Still we must remember that the upper jaw is somewhat wider 
than the lower, and that from the fact of the teeth not being perfectly 
apposed, a sharp ridge is left unworn on the inside of the lower molars 
and on the outside of the upper, which may excoriate the tongue or 
lips to a considerable extent. This condition can readily be felt by the 
hand, and these sharp ridges when found should be rasped down by a 
guarded rasp. Any one can do this without the aid of the veterina- 
rian. In some instances the first or last molar tooth is unnaturally 
long, owing to the absence of its fellow on the opposite jaw. Should 
it be the last molar that is thus elongated it will require the aid of the 
veterinary surgeon, who has the necessary forceps or chisel for cutting 
it. The front molar may be rasped down, if much patience is taken. 
In decay of the teeth it is quite common to find the tooth correspond- 
ing to the decayed one on the opposite jaw very much elongated, 
sometimes to that extent that the mouth can not be perfectly closed. 
Such teeth must also be shortened by the bone forceps, chisel, bone- 
saw, or rasp. In all instances where horses "quid" their food, where 
they are slobbering, or where they evince pain in mastication, shown 
by holding their head to one side while chewing, the teeth should be 
carefully examined. If, as is mostly the case, all these symptoms are 
referable to sharp corners or projections of the teeth, these must be re- 
moved by the rasp. If decayed teeth are found, or other serious diffi- 
culty detected, an expert should be called. 

Toothache.— This is rare in the horse and is mostly witnessed where 
there is decay of a tooth. I have observed it only in the molar teeth. 
Toothache is to be discovered iu the horse by the pain expressed by 
him while feeding or drinking cold water. I have seen horses affected 
with toothache that would suddenly stop chewing, throw the head to one 
side, and slightly open the mouth. They behave as though some sharp 
body had punctured the mouth. If upon examination there is no for- 
eign body found we must then carefully examine each tooth. If this 
can not be done with the hand in the mouth we can, in most instances, 
discover the aching tooth by pressing each tooth from without. The 
horse will flinch when the sore tooth is pressed upon. In most cases 
there is nothing to be done but the extraction of the decayed tooth, and 
this, of course, is only to be attempted by the veterinarian. 

There is a deformity, known as parrot-mouth, that interferes with pre- 
hension, mastication, and, indirectly, with digestion. The upper incis- 
ors project in front of and beyond the lower ones. The teeth of both 
jaws become unusually long, as they are not worn down by friction. 
Such horses experience much difficulty in grazing. Little can be done 
except to occasionally examine the teeth, and if those of the lower jaw 
become so long that they bruise the " bars " of the upper jaw, they must 
be shortened by the rasp or saw. Horses with this deformity should 
never be left entirely at pasture. 



25 



DISEASES OF THE MOUTH. 

Lampas is the name given to a swelling of the mucous membrane 
covering the hard palate and projecting in a more or less prominent 
ridge immediately behind the upper incisors. There is no doubt but 
that in some rare instances, and particularly while teething, there is a 
congestion and swelling of this part of the roof of the mouth which 
may interfere with feeding. In one instance in my practice I found the 
swelling so extensive that the mucous membrane was caught between 
the front teeth when the horse attempted to eat. Should this exist the 
swollen parts are to be scarified, being careful not to cut deeply into the 
structures. An astringent wash of alum water may also be beneficial. 
Burning of the lampas is cruel and unnecessary, and should never be 
permitted, as it often causes serious results to follow. 

It is quite a common opinion among owners of horses and stablemen 
that lampas is a disease that very frequently exists. In fact whenever 
a horse fails to eat, and if he does not exhibit very marked symptoms 
of a severe illness, they say at once " he has the lampas." It is almost 
impossible to convince them to the contrary, yet in a practice extend- 
ing over fifteen years I have never seen but two or three cases of what 
is called lampas that gave rise to the least trouble or that called for 
any treatment whatever. It may be put down, then, as more a disease 
of the stableman's imagination than of the horse's mouth. 

Stomatitis. — This is an inflammation of the mucous membrane lining 
the mouth and is produced by irritating medicines, foods, or other sub- 
stances. In cities it frequently follows from eating out of ash-barrels. 
The symptoms are swelling of the mouth, which is also hot and pain- 
ful to the touch ; there is a copious discharge of saliva ; the mucous 
membrane is reddened, and in some cases there are observed vesicles 
or ulcers in the mouth. The treatment is simple, soft feed alone often 
being all that is necessary. In some instances it may be advisable to 
use a wash of chlorate of potash, borax, or alum, about one-half ounce 
to a pint of water. Hay, straw, or oats should not be fed unless 
steamed or boiled. 

Glossitis, or inflammation of the tongue, is very similar to the above, 
and mostly exists with it and is due to the same causes. Injuries to 
the tongue may produce this simple inflammation of its covering mem- 
brane, or, if severe, may produce lesions much more extensive, such 
as lacerations, abscesses, etc. These latter would require surgical 
treatment, but for the simpler forms of inflammation of the tongue the 
treatment recommended for stomatitis should be followed. 

Ptyalism or salivation consists in an abnormal and excessive secre- 
tion of saliva. This is often seen as a symptom of irregular teeth, in- 
flammation of the mouth or tongue, or of the use of such medicines as 
lobelia, mercury, and many others. Some foods produce this, as clover, 
and particularly second crop ; foreign bodies, as nails, wheat-chaff, and 



26 

corn-cobs becoming lodged in the mouth. If the cause is removed, as a 
rule no further attention is necessary. Astringent washes may be 
applied to the mouth as a gargle or by means of a sponge. 

Pharyngitis is an inflammation of the mucous membrane lining of the 
pharynx (back part of the mouth). It rarely exists unless accompauied 
by stomatitis, glossitis, or laryngitis. In those instances where the in- 
flammation is mostly confined to the pharynx we notice febrile symptoms — 
difficulty of swallowing either liquids or solids ; there is but little cough 
except when trying to swallow ; there is no soreness on pressure over 
larynx (large ring of the windpipe). Increased flow of saliva, difficulty 
of swallowing liquids in particular, and cough only when attempting 
to swallow, are the symptoms best marked in pharyngitis. For treat- 
ment, chlorate of potash in half-ounce doses three or four times a day 
is the best. This may be given suspended in warm water as a gargle, 
or may be mixed with licorice-root powder and honey and given 
with a strong spoon or wooden paddle. Borax or alum water may be 
substituted for chlorate of potash in the same-sized doses. Soft food 
should be given, but I have seen some cases where the animal would 
eat corn from the cob better than anything else. 

Paralysis of the pharynx, or, as it is commonly called, "paralysis of 
the throat," is one of the most stubborn diseases of the horse that we are 
ever called to treat. A horse is suddenly noticed to be unable to eat, 
and his manger is found to contain much saliva and frothy food that 
has been returned through his nose. The symptoms which enable us to 
tell that paralysis of the pharynx exists are as follows : The owner says 
he has a horse that " can't eat." That is all he knows. We find the 
animal with a somewhat anxious countenance ; manger, as above de- 
scribed ; pulse, respiration, and temperature, at first, about the same 
as in health ; the horse will constantly try to eat or drink, but is un- 
able to do so ; if water be offered him from a pail he will apparently drink 
with avidity, but, if we notice, the quantity of water in the pail remains 
about the same ; he will continue trying to drink by the hour; if he can 
succeed in getting any fluid in to the back part of the mouth it comes 
out at once through the nose. Foods also return through the nose, or 
are dropped from the mouth, quidded. An examination of the mouth 
by inserting the hand fails to find any obstruction or auy abnormal 
condition, except, perhaps, that the parts are too flabby to the touch. 
These cases go on from bad to worse ; the horse constantly and rapidly 
loses in condition, becomes very much emaciated, the eyes are hollow 
and lustreless, and death soon occurs from inanition. 

Treatment is very unsatisfactory. Severe blisters should be applied 
behind and under the jaw; the mouth is to be frequently swabbed out 
with alum or chlorate of potash, 1 ounce to a pint of water, by means 
of a sponge fastened to the eud of a stick. Strychnia is the best agent 
to be used to overcome this paralysis, and should be given in 1-grain 
doses three or four times a day. If the services of a veterinarian can 



27 

be obtained he should give this medicine by means of a hypodermic 
syringe, injecting it deeply into the pharynx. In my experience the 
blister externally, the frequent swabbing of the mouth, as above de- 
scribed, and the use of a nerve stimulant are all that can be done. This 
disease may be mistaken at times for foreign bodies in the mouth or for 
the so called cerebro-spinal meningitis. It is to be distinguished from 
the former by a careful examination of the mouth, the absence of any 
offending body, and by the flabby feel of the mouth ; from the latter by 
the animal appearing in perfect health in every particular except this 
inability to eat or drink. 

Abscesses sometimes form in the pharynx and give rise to symptoms 
resembling those of laryngitis or distemper. Interference with breath- 
ing, that is of recent origin, and progression, without any observable 
swelling or soreness about the throat, will make us suspect the forma- 
tion of an abscess in this location. But little can be done in the way 
of treatment, save to hurry the ripening of the abscess and its dis- 
charge, by steaming with hops, hay, or similar substances. If the ab- 
scess can be felt through the mouth it must be opened by the attend- 
ing veterinary surgeon. 

DISEASES OF THE (ESOPHAGUS OR GULLET. 

It is rare to find disease of this organ, except as a result of the in- 
troduction of foreign bodies too large to pass, or to the exhibition of 
irritating medicines. Great care should be taken in the administration 
of irritant or caustic medicines that they be thoroughly diluted. If 
this is not done erosions and ulcerations of the throat ensue, and this 
again is prone to be followed by constriction — narrowing — of the gullet. 
The mechanical trouble of choking is quite common. It frequently 
occurs when the animal is suddenly startled while eating apples or roots, 
and we should be careful never to suddenly approach or put a dog 
after horses or cows that are feeding upon such substances. If left 
alone they very rarely attempt to swallow the object until it is suffi- 
ciently masticated. 

Choking also arises from feeding oats in a deep, narrow manger, to 
such horses as eat very greedily, or bolt their food. Wheat chaff is 
also a frequent source of choke. This accident may result from the 
attempts to force eggs down without breaking or from giving balls that 
are too large or not of the proper shape. 

Whatever object causes the choking, it may lodge in the upper part 
of the oesophagus, at its middle portion, or close to the stomach, giving 
rise to the designations of pharyngeal, cervical, and thoracic choke. In 
some cases where the original obstruction is low we find all that part 
of the gullet above it to be distended with food. 

The symptoms will vary according to the position of the body causing 
choke. In pharyngeal choice the object is lodged in the upper portion of 
the oesophagus. The horse will present symptoms of great distress, 



28 

hurried breathing, frequent cough, excessive flow of saliva, sweating, 
trembling, or stamping with the fore-feet. The abdomen rapidly dis- 
tends with gas. The diagnosis is completed by manipulating the upper 
part of the throat from without and by the introduction of the haud 
into the back part of the mouth, finding the body lodged here. In 
cervical choke (where the obstruction is situated at any point between 
the throat-latch and the shoulder) the object can both be seen and felt. 
The symptoms here are not so severe; the horse will be seen to occa- 
sionally draw himself up, arch his neck, and sometimes utter a loud 
shriek; the expression becomes anxious, and attempts at vomiting are 
made. The abdomen is mostly full and tympanitic. Should there be 
any question as to the trouble a decided conclusion may mostly be 
reached by pouring water into the throat from a bottle. If the ob- 
struction is complete you can see the gullet become distended with 
each bottle of water by standing on the left side of the horse and watch- 
ing the course of the oasophagus, just above the windpipe. This is not 
always a sure test, as the obstruction may be an angular body, in 
which case liquids would pass it. Solids taken would show in these 
cases ; but solids should not, however, be given, as they serve to in- 
crease the trouble by rendering the removal of the body more difficult. 
In cervical choke one can always, with a little care, feel the imprisoned 
object. 

In thoracic choice the symptoms are still less severe. Our attention will 
be directed to this part of the cesophagus by food or water being ejected 
through the nose or mouth after the animal has taken a few swallows. 
There will be some symptoms of distress, fullness of the abdomen, 
cough, and occasionally the crying or shrieking as heard in cervical 
choke. The diagnosis is complete if, upon passing the probang (a hol- 
low, flexible tube made for this purpose), an obstruction is encountered. 

Treatment. — If the choke is at the beginning of the gullet (pharyngeal) 
we must endeavor to remove the obstacle through the mouth. A 
mouth-gag or speculum is to be introduced into the mouth to protect 
the hand and arm. of the operator. Then while an assistant, with his 
hands grasped tightly behind the object, presses it upward and forward 
with all his force, the operator must pass his hand into the mouth until 
he can seize the obstruction and draw it outward. This mode of pro- 
cedure must not be abandoned with the first failure, as we may get the 
obstacle farther toward the mouth by continued efforts. If we fail 
with the hand, forceps may be introduced through the mouth and the 
object seized when it is just beyond the reach of the fingers. Should 
our efforts entirely fail we must then endeavor to force the obstruction 
downward by means of the probang. This instrument, which is of such 
signal service in removing choke in cattle, is decidedly more dangerous 
to use for the horse, and I can not pass this point without a word of 
caution to those who have been known to introduce into the horse's 
throat such objects as whip-stalks, shovel-handles, etc. These are 



29 

always dangerous, and I have seen more than one horse die from this 
barbarous treatment. 

Cervical choke. — In this, as well as in thoracic choke, we must first of 
all endeavor to soften or lubricate the obstruction by pouring oil or 
mucilaginous driuks down the gullet. After this has been done we are 
to endeavor to move the object by gentle manipulations with the hands. 
If choked with oats or chaff (and these are the objects that most fre- 
quently produce choke in the horse), we should begin by gently squeez- 
ing the lower portion of the impacted mass, and endeavoring to work it 
loose a little at a time. This is greatly favored at times if we apply hot 
fomentations immediately about the obstruction. We should persist in 
these efforts for at least an hour before deciding to resort to other and 
more dangerous modes of treatment. Should we fail, however, the pro- 
bang may be used. In the absence of the regular instrument, which 
must always be flexible and finished with a smooth cup-shaped ex- 
tremity, we may use a long piece of inch hose. The mouth is to bo 
kept open by a gag of wood or iron and the head slightly raised and 
extended. The probang is then to be carefully guided by the hand into 
the upper part of the gullet and gently forced downward until the ob- 
struction is reached. Pressure must then be gradual and firm. Do not, 
at first, attempt too much force, or the oesophagus will be ruptured. 
Simply keep up this firm, gentle pressure until you feel the object mov- 
ing, after which you are to rapidly follow it to the stomach. If, again, 
this mode of treatment is unsuccessful, a veterinarian or medical doctor 
is to be called in, who can remove the object by cutting down upon the 
gullet, opening it, and removing the offending body. This should 
scarcely be attempted by a novice, as a knowledge of the anatomy of the 
parts is essential to avoid cutting the large artery, vein, and nerve that 
are closely related to the oesophagus in its cervical portion. 

Thoracic choice can only be treated by means of the introduction of 
oils and mucilaginous drinks and the careful use of the probang. Some 
practitioners speak very highly of the value of thick soap-suds, gener- 
ously horned down the animal's throat. 

Stricture of the oesophagus is mostly due to corrosive medicines, pre- 
vious choking (accompanied by lacerations, which, in healing, narrow 
the passage), and pressure on the gullet by tumors. In the majority of 
cases of stricture we soon have dilatation of the gullet iu front of the 
constricted portion. This dilatation is due to the frequent accumula- 
tion of solid food above the constriction. Little can be done in either 
of these instances except to feed on sloppy or liquid food. 

Sacular dilatation of the oesophagus. — This mostly follows choking, and 
is due to rupture of the muscular coat of the gullet, allowing the inter- 
nal or mucous coat to hernia or pouch through the lacerated muscular 
walls. This sac or pouch gradually enlarges, from the frequent impris- 
onment of food, until it presses upon the gullet and prevents swallow- 
ing. When liquids are taken the solid materials are partially washed 



30 

out of the pouch. The symptoms presenting themselves are as follows: 
The horse is able to swallow a few inouthfuls of food without apparent 
distress; then he will suddenly stop feeding, paw, contract the muscles 
of his neck, and eject a portion of the food through his nose or mouth. 
As the dilatation thus empties itself the symptoms gradually subside, 
only to re-appear when he has again taken solid food. Liquids pass 
without any, or but little, inconvenience. Should this dilatation exist 
in the cervical region, surgical interference may sometimes prove effect- 
ual ; if in the thoracic portion, nothing can be done, and the patient 
rapidly passes from hand to hand by "swapping," until, at no distant 
date, the contents of the sac become too firm to be dislodged as here- 
tofore, and the animal succumbs. 

DISEASES OF THE STOMACH. 

Impaction — Stomach staggers, or gorged stomach. — These are terms 
given to the stomach when it is so enormously distended with food that 
it loses all power of contracting upon its contents. It occurs most 
frequently in those horses that after a long fast are given a large feed, 
or in those that have gained access to the grain -bin and eaten rav- 
enously. The proportionally small stomach of the horse, as well as his 
inability to vomit, will account for the frequency of stomach staggers. 
I have witnessed this trouble most frequently in teamsters' horses and 
those that are not fed as often as they should be. After a long fast it 
is the custom to feed abundantly. The horse bolts his food, and the 
stomach not having time to empty itself becomes distended and 
paralyzed. To prevent this condition it is sufficient to feed at shorter 
intervals, to give small quantities at a time, and to secure the feed- bins 
so that if a horse gets loose he can not " stuff himself to bursting." 

Symptoms. — Percivall says that "a stomach simply surcharged with 
food, without any accompanying tympanitic distention, does not ap- 
pear to occasion local pain, but to operate rather that kind of influence 
upon the brain which gives rise to symptoms, not stomachic, but cere- 
bral. Hence the analogy between this disease and staggers, and hence 
the appellation for it of ' stomach staggers.'" The horse soon after eat- 
ing becomes dull and heavy, or drowsy ; slight colicky symptoms are 
observed, and are continuous; he rarely lies down, but carries his head 
extended and low, nearly touching the ground. Dullness rapidly in- 
creases, the eyes are partially closed, vision is impaired, he presses or 
thrusts his head against the manger or sides of the stall, and paws or 
even climbs with his fore feet. Respirations are less frequent than in 
health, the pulse slow and sluggish. All these symptoms rapidly in- 
crease in severity; he becomes delirious; cold sweats bedew the body; 
he trembles violently, slobbers or vomits a sour, fermenting mass, 
staggers from side to side, or plunges madly about until he drops dead. 
Usually the bowels are constipated, although (and especially if the en- 
gorgement is due to eating wheat or rye) diarrhea has been observed. 
These symptoms resemble in some particulars those of "blind" or 



31 

" mad" staggers, but if we are careful to get the history of the case, i. e., 
ravenous eating after a long fast, or gaining access to grain-bins, we 
should not be in much danger of confounding them. Post-mortem ex- 
aminations sometimes reveal rupture of the stomach, owing to its enor- 
mous distension, and to the violence with which he throws himself in his 
delirium. If not ruptured the stomach will be distended to its utmost. 

Treatment for these cases is very unsatisfactory. A purgative of 
Barbadoes aloes, 1 ounce, should be given at once. We should then 
try to stimulate the walls of the stomach to contraction by giving cay- 
enne pepper, one-half ounce, or half-ounce doses of Jamaica ginger. 
Injections into the rectum, last gut, of turpentine 2 ounces, in 8 ounces 
of linseed oil, may stimulate the bowels to act, and thus, in a measure, 
relieve the stomach. Cold applications applied to the head may in 
some cases relieve the cerebral symptoms already referred to, and some 
recommend bleeding for the same purpose. 

Tympanites of the stomach. — This is of somewhat frequent occurrence, 
according to my observation, but is not, I believe, as a rule, separately 
treated of by works on veterinary medicine. It is similar in cause and 
symptoms to the above, yet distinct enough to enable the careful ob- 
server to readily differentiate between them. In tympanites of the 
stomach we find this organ to be greatly distended as before, but in 
this case its contents are gaseous, or probably a mixture of food and 
gases, like fermenting yeast. This disease of the horse corresponds 
exactly with "hoven" or "blown" in cattle, and may be due to over- 
loading the stomach with young, succulent, growing herbage, clover in 
particular, from whose subsequent fermentation gas is liberated in 
quantities sufficient to enormously distend the stomach. Growing 
wheat or rye are also fertile causes of this distention if eaten in any con- 
siderable amounts. Another very frequent cause of stomach-bloat is 
overfeeding, particularly if given immediately before hard work. Many 
people, if they expect to make a long journey, think to fit their horses 
for the fatigue consequent thereto by giving an extra allowance of oats 
or other food just before starting. This is most injudicious. The horse 
starts to his work feeling full and oppressed ; he soon grows dull and 
listless, and fails to respond to the whip ; sweats profusely ; attempts 
to lie down ; his head is carried forward and downward, and if checked 
up is heavy on the reins, stumbles or blunders forward and often falls. 
If looked at carefully you can not fail to observe that he is unusually full 
over the posterior ribs. The flanks may also be distended with gas, 
and sound like a drum on being struck, though I have seen cases where 
the gases were entirely confined to the stomach. With this condition 
the pain and distress are constant ; the swelling referred to plainly ap- 
preciable; head extended and low, retching or even vomiting of fer- 
mented food. On placing the ear to the horse's windpipe a distinct me- 
tallic sound can be heard, as of air rushing through the windpipe. 
Such cases are rapid in their course and often fatal. 



32 

Treatment must be prompt and energetic. An antacid should be given, 
and, as these cases mostly occur on the road away, probably, from all 
drug-stores, you should hasten to the first house. Get common baking 
soda, and administer 2 to 4 ounces of it as quickly as possible. One- 
half ounce of cayenne pepper may be added to this with advantage, as 
it serves to aid the stomach to contract upon its contents, and expel the 
gas. Charcoal, in any amount ; chloride of lime, one-half ounce ; carbon- 
ate of ammonia, one-half ounce ; or any medicine that will check or stop 
fermentation, or absorb the gases, may be given. A physic of 1 ounce 
of aloes, or 1 pint of linseed oil should be given to unload the stomach 
and bowels. Cold water, dashed with force over the stomach, is thought 
by some to favor condensation of the gas. This lesson should be learned 
from one of these attacks — and doubtless will be if, as is often the case, 
the horse dies — that when a horse or any other animal is expected to 
do an unusual amount of work in a short time he will best do it upon 
a spare feed. Curb your generosity and humanity (?) for the brute un- 
til the journey's end, and even then wait until the horse is thoroughly 
rested before giving the usual feed. 

Rupture of the stomach. — This mostly occurs as a result of engorged 
or tympanitic stomach, and from the horse violently throwing himself 
when so affected. It may result from disease of the coats of the stom- 
ach, gastritis, stones or calculi, tumors, or anything thtat closes the 
opening of the stomach into the intestines, and very violent pulling or 
jumping immediately after the animal has eaten heartily of bulky food. 
These or similar causes may lead to this accident. 

The symptoms of rupture of the stomach are not constant, nor always 
reliable. We should always make inquiry as to what and how much 
the horse has been fed it the last meal. Vomiting has, pretty gen- 
erally, been declared to be a symptom of rupture of this organ. I wish 
to preface what I may say concerning this with the statement that 1 
have observed vomiting when the post-mortem examination revealed 
rupture; that I have found rupture of the stomach where vomiting 
had not occurred; that I have witnessed vomiting where the horse soon 
after made a rapid recovery, i. e., when the stomach was not ruptured. 
In spite of this contradictory evidence, I am of the opinion that, taken 
in connection with other symptoms, this sign is of value as pointing 
toward rupture of the stomach. This accident has occurred in my 
practice mostly in heavy draught horses. A prominent symptom ob- 
served (though I have also seen it in diaphragmatic hernia) is where 
the horse, if possible, gets the front feet on higher ground than the 
hind ones, or sits on his haunches, like a dog. This position affords 
relief to some extent, and it will be maintained for some minutes ; it is 
also quickly regained when the horse has changed it for some other. 
Colicky symptoms, of course, are present, and these will vary much, 
and present no diagnostic value. As the case progresses " the horse 
will often stretch forward the fore legs, lean backwards and down- 



33 

wards until the belly nearly touches the ground, and then rise up again 
with a groan, after which the fluid from his nostrils is issued in increased 
quantity." The pulse is fast and weak, breathing hurried, body bathed 
in a clammy sweat, limbs tremble violently, the horse reels or staggers 
from side to side, and death quickly ends the scene. 

In the absence of any pathognomonic symptom Percivall says we 
must take into account the history of the case; the subject of it; the 
circumstances attending it; the swollen condition of the abdomen; the 
symptoms of colic that cease suddenly and are succeeded by cold 
sweats and tremors; the pulse from being quick and small and thready, 
growing weak and more frequent, and, at length running down and 
becoming altogether imperceptible; the countenance denoting gloom 
and despondency of the heaviest character; looking back at the flank 
and groaning; sometimes crouching with the hindquarters; with, or 
without eructation and vomiting. 

There is no treatment that can be of any use whatever. Could we be 
sure of our diagnosis it would be better to destroy the animal at once. 
Since, however, there is always the possibility of a mistaken! diagnosis, 
we may give powdered opium in 1 -drachm doses every two or three hours, 
with the object of keeping the stomach as quiet as possible. 

Gastritis is an inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the 
stomach. As an idiopathic disease it very rarely exists; but is mostly 
seen to be due to mechanical irritation, or to giving irritant and corro- 
sive poisons in too large doses or without sufficient dilution. The 
symptoms are not well marked; there is a febiile condition, colicky 
pains, and, mostly, intense thirst. When poisons have produced gas- 
tritis there will be other symptoms referable to the action of the partic- 
ular poison swallowed. If, for instance, the gastritis is due to a salt 
of lead we must expect to find difficult or labored breathing, abdominal 
pains, partial paralysis of extensor muscles primarily, tottering gait, 
convulsions, and death. Where the poisoning by lead is gradual the 
symptoms differ somewhat. There is a general appearance of unthrifti- 
ness, loss of appetite, staring coat, constipation, watery swellings under 
the jaws, a gray or blue line along the margin of the gums, and a pro- 
gressive paralysis, noted often at first in the anterior extremities. 
Colicky symptoms are also observed. Abortion is often noticed during 
chronic lead-poisoning. In all cases of lead-poisoning the stomach, and 
often intestines, show erosions of its lining membrane, which in other 
parts is darker in color, and the mucous membrane is easily stripped 
off. Chronic poisoning by lead is to be expected near paint works, 
about newly-painted buildings, where paint kegs are left in the fields, 
where horses take small particles of lead with their food, where soft 
water runs through new lead pipes, and where the drinking water is 
drawn from wells or cisterns containing lead. Lead can be detected in 
almost all parts of the body at the post-mortem examination of chronic 
poisoning. 

11035 3 



34 

Treatment. — In acute gastritis, due to the careless or accidental ad- 
ministration of large quantities of tliis poison, we must give sulphuric 
acid, 30 to GO drops well diluted with water, milk, white of eggs, oils, 
and demulcent drinks, as linseed gruel or tea. If the gastritis is 
chronic, due to the long ingestion of small particles of lead, we must 
administer from one-half to 1 pound of Epsom salts. Iodide of potas- 
sium in 1-drachm doses, twice or thrice daily, are here of much service. 
If much pain exists it may be relieved by giving morphia in 3 to 5 
grain doses, repeated two or three times a day. 

Where arsenic is the poison producing gastritis or gastro-enteritis 
(inflammation of the stomach and bowels), we have symptoms of ab- 
dominal pain, nausea, or vomiting, purging that is accompanied by an 
offensive odor, staggering gait, quickened breathing, paralysis of the 
hind extremities, and death. On opening a horse that has died of 
arsenical poisoning we are struck by the escape of large quantities of 
offensive gas. There are patches of inflammation and extravasation of 
blood in the stomach, and often in the intestines. Chemical tests 
should be resorted to before giving a decided opinion that death is due 
to arsenic. Poisoning from this agent is most common where sheep 
have been dipped in arsenical preparations for the " scab n and then 
allowed to run on pasture without first drying their wool. Arsenic is 
thus deposited upon the grass and is eaten by horses grazing thereon, 
producing the symtoms of gastritis and death. Gastritis may also occur 
from poisoning by copper, the mercurials, and some vegetable drugs. 
Gastritis produced by any of the irritant poisons is to be treated with 
oils and demulcent drinks. Opium may be given to allay pain and 
inflammation. Care should be observed in feeding for a time, being 
careful to give only soft and easily digested foods. 

BOTS — LARVAE OF THE GAD-FLY. 

There are such erroneous opinions extant concerning the bot and 
the depredations it is supposed to commit upon the horse that a some- 
what careful study should be made of it. 

Of the many insect parasites and tormentors of solipeds the gad- 
flies (CEstridse) are of the most importance. Cobbold, who is the best 
authority on the subject, says : 

The common gad-fly (Gastrophilus equi) attacks the animal while grazing late in 
the summer, its object being, not to derive sustenance, but to deposit its eggs. This 
is accomplisbed by means of a glutinous excretion, causing the ova (eggs) to ad- 
here to the hairs. The parts selected are chiefly those of the shoulder, base of the 
neck, and inner part of the fore legs, especially about the knees, for in these situations 
the horse will have no difficulty in reaching the ova with its tongue. When the 
animal licks those parts of the coat where the eggs have been placed the moisture of 
the tongue, aided by warmth, hatches the ova, and in something less than three 
weeks from the time of the deposition of the eggs the larva? have made their escape. 
As maggots they are next transferred to the mouth and ultimately to the stomach 
along with food and drink. A great many larvae perish during this passive mode of 
immigration, Borne being dropped from the mouth and others being crushed in the 



35 

fodder during mastication. It has been calculated that out of the many hundreds 
of eggs deposited on a single horse scarcely one out of fifty of the larvae arrive within 
the stomach. Notwithstanding this waste the interior of the stomach may become 
completely covered (cuticular portion) with hots. Whether there be few or many 
they are anchored in this situation chiefly by means of two large cephalic hooks. 
After the hots have attained perfect growth thej voluntarily loosen their hold and 
allow themselves to be carried along the alimentary canal until they escape with the 
feces. In all cases they sooner or later fall to the ground and when transferred to 
the soil they bury themselves beneath the surface in order to undergo transformation 
into the pupa condition. Having remained in the earth for a period of six or seven 
weeks they finally emerge from their pupal-cocoons as perfect dipterous (winged) 
insects — the gad-fly. It thus appears that hots ordinarily pass about eight months 
of their lifetime in the digestive organs of the horse. 

The species just described infest chiefly the stomach and duodenum — 
small gut leading from the stomach. 

Another species of oestrus affecting the horse is the oestrus hcemorrhoi- 
dalis. These are found fastened to the mucous membrane of the rectum, 
(last gut) or even outside upon the anus, and occasion much irritation 
and annoyance, and, at times, require to be removed by the fingers or 
forceps. 

The opinion, almost universally entertained, that bots frequently 
cause colicky pains, is erroneous. It is very common to hear by-standers 
declare that almost every horse with abdominal pains "has the bots," 
and their suggested treatment is always varied and heroic. 

Almost all horses in the country, as well as horses in the cities during 
their first year there, have " the bots." It is in exceptionally rare in- 
stances that they produce any appreciable symptoms or disturbances. 
In my own practice I have never known bots to be the cause of any 
serious ailment of the horse ; and only once has my father, in a practice 
extending over fifty years, known bots to be the cause of death. In 
this instance the bots seemed to have simultaneously loosened their 
hold upon the mucous lining of the stomach, and were forced as an im- 
permeable wedge into the pyloric orifice, or outlet, of the stomach, and 
thus, preventing the passage of food or medicine, produced death. 
Were the bots to attempt to fasten themselves to the sensitive lining of 
the bowels in their outward passage they might cause irritation and 
expressions of pain in the form of colicky symptoms, but this they sel- 
dom or never do. The opinion frequently expressed at post-mortem ex- 
aminations, when the stomach is found to be ruptured, that " the bots 
have eaten through the stomach," is again a mistake. Bots never do 
this; the rupture is due to overdistention of the viscus with food or 
gases. Some writers on veterinary medicine have even urged that bots, 
by their presence, stimulated the stomach secretions, and were thus 
actually an aid to digestion. This opinion is as far from the truth as 
the more general one referred to above, concerning the harm they do. 

Bots may, and probably do, when in large enough numbers to be 
fastened to the true digestive portion of the stomach, slightly interfere 
with digestion j the animal may not thrive, the coat stares, and emacia- 



36 

tion may follow ; but beyond this, with the exception already noted, 
they are harmless. Even were they the cause of trouble, there are no 
medicines that affect them ; neither acids, nor alkalies, anthelmintics 
(worm medicines), nor anodynes cause them to become loose and to 
pass out of the body. To prevent them it is necessary to watch for their 
eggs on the legs and different parts of the body in the late summer and 
autumn. Theseeggsareto be carefully scraped off and burned. Horses 
should not be watered from stagnant ponds, as they frequently swallow 
the ripening eggs with such water. It is entirely useless to attempt 
any treatment to rid the horse of bots ; they go at their appointed time, 
and can not be dislodged before this. We should remember that in 
following their natural course or stages of existence the bots loosen 
their hold during May and June mostly. They are then expelled in 
great numbers, and horse-owners, noticing them in the manure, hasten 
to us saying "my horse has the bots." If we are honest we tell him 
that, in the natural course of events, nature is doing for him that which 
we can not do. We may say in conclusion, then, that bots seldom pro- 
duce any evil effects whatever ; that not more than once in ten thousand 
times are they the cause of colicky symptoms, and that they require no 
medicine to eject them. 

INDIGESTION. 

Indigestion is a term applied to all those conditions where, from any 
cause, digestion is imperfectly performed. It is not at all uncommon to 
witness in the horse symptoms similar to those of dyspepsia in man. 
The disturbances of digestion included under this head are not so pro- 
nounced as to produce colic, yet our consideration of diseases of the 
digestive organs would be incomplete if we failed to mention this, the 
most frequest of all digestive disorders. The seat and causes of indi- 
gestion are found to vary in different horses, or even in the same horse 
at different times. Apart from the indigestibility of the food itself 
there are many causes productive of indigestion. The teeth are often 
at fault. Where these are sharp, irregular, or decayed the food is im- 
perfectly masticated and swallowed before there is a proper admixture 
with the saliva. Bolting of the food; the bile— secretion of the liver 
— may be defective in quality or quantity; there may be lack of secre- 
tion of the pancreatic juice, or there may be simply want of peristaltic 
movement of the stomach and intestines, thereby causing an interrup- 
tion of the passage of the ingesta. The principal seat of indigestion, 
however, is in the stomach or small intestines. Whenever, from any 
cause, the secretions from these parts are excessive or diffident, dys- 
pepsia or indigestion must invariably -follow. Indigestion is often due 
to keeping horses on low, marshy pastures, and particularly during 
cold weather; wintering on hard, dry hay or corn-stalks, and other 
bulky and innutritive food ; irregular feeding or overfeeding (though 
this latter is more likely to produce engorged stomach, or tympanites 



3? 

of the stomach, which have been described by some as u acute indi- 
gestion.*') 

Symptoms, — Indigestion is characterized by irregular appetite 5 re- 
fusing all food at times, and at others eatiug ravenously ; the appetite 
is not only irregular, but is often depraved -, tbere is a disposition on 
the part of the horse to eat unusual substances, as wood, soiled bed- 
ding, or even his own feces ; the bowels are irregular, to-day loose and 
bad smelling, to-morrow bound ; grain often passed whole in the feces 
and the hay xjassed in balls or impacted masses undergoing but little 
change ; the horse frequently passes considerable quantities of wind 
that has a sour odor. The animal loses flesh, the skin presents a hard, 
dry appearance, and seems very tight (hide-bound). If these symp- 
toms occur in a single horse in a stable where others are kept we must 
look, not to the feed, but to the animal himself for the cause of his 
trouble. 

Treatment. — It is evident, from the many causes of indigestion and 
from its protean forms, that we must be exceedingly careful in our ex- 
aminations of the subject of this disorder. We must commence with 
the food, its quality, quantity, and time of feeding ', examine the water 
supply, and see, besides, that it is given before feeding ; then we must 
carefully observe the condition of the mouth and teeth ; and, continuing 
our observations as best we may, endeavor to locate the seat of trouble 
— whether it is in the stomach, intestines, or annexed organs of diges- 
tion, as the liver and pancreas. If the teeth are sharp or irregular 
they must be rasped down ; if any are decayed they must be extracted ; 
if indigestion is due to ravenous eating or bolting the food, we must 
then feed from a large manger where the grain can be spread and the 
horse compelled to eat slowly. 

In the great majority of cases I have found a cathartic, aloes 1 ounce, 
or linseed oil 1 pint, to be of much service if given at the outset. Any 
irritation, such as worms, undigested food, etc., that are operating as 
" causes," are thus removed, and in many instances no further treat- 
ment is required. There is mostly a tendency to distension of the 
stomach and bowels with gas during indigestion, and I have never 
found any treatment so effective as the following alkaline tonic: Bak- 
ing soda, powdered ginger, and powdered gentian, equal parts. These 
are to be thoroughly mixed and given in heaping tablespoonful doses, 
twice a day, before feeding. This powder is best given by dissolving 
the above quantity in a half pint of water, and given as a drench. 

INTESTINAL WORMS. 

Although there are several species of worms found in the intestines 
of horses, it will be sufficient, in an article like this, to refer only to 
three or four of the most common ones. Worms are most frequently 
seen in young horses, and in those that are weak and debilitated. They 
commonly exist in horses that are on low, wet, or marshy pastures, and 
in those that drink stagnant water. 



38 

The intestinal worm most commonly seen is known as the Lumbricoid 
worm. In form it is much like the common earth-worm. It is white or 
reddish in color, and measures from 4 to 12 inches in length, though 
some have been seen that were nearly 30 inches long. In thickness 
they vary from the size of a rye straw to that of a lady's little finger, 
being thickest at the middle, and tapering at both ends. They are 
found singly or in groups or masses, and infest chiefly the small intes- 
tines. 

Another common variety of intestinal worm is called the pin-worm, 
and is found mostly in the large intestines. These are semitransparent r 
thread-like worms, measuring in length from 1 to 2 inches. 

The tape- worm, once seen, is easily recognized. It is white, flat, 
thin, broad, and jointed. The head is found at the smaller end of the 
worm. Tape- worms of the horse sometimes measure from 20 to 30 feet 
in length. 

Symptoms of intestinal worms. — Slight colicky pains are noticed at 
times, or there may only be switching of the tail, frequent passages of 
manure, and some slight straining, itching of the anus, and rubbing of 
the tail or rump against the stall or fences ; the horse is in poor condi- 
tion; does not shed his coat; is hide-bound and potbellied; the appe- 
tite is depraved, licking the walls, biting the wooden work of the stalls, 
licking parts of his body, eating earth, and being particularly fond of 
salt; the bowels are irregular, constipation or diarrhea being noticed. 
Some place much dependence upon the symptom of itching of the up- 
per lip, as shown by the horse frequently turning it up and rubbing it 
upon the wall or stalls. Others again declare that whenever we see the 
adherence of a dried whitish substance about the anus worms are pres- 
ent. The owe symptom, however, that we should always look for, and 
certainly the only one that may not deceive us, is seeing the horse pass 
the worms in his dung. 

Treatment. — Eemedies to destroy intestinal worms are much more ef- 
ficient if given after a long fast, and then the worm medicine must be 
supplemented by a physic to carry out the worms. Among the best 
worm medicines may be mentioned santonine, turpentine, tartar emetic, 
infusion of tobacco, and bitter tonics. To destroy tape-worms, areca 
nut, male-fern, and pumpkin seeds are the best. If a horse is pass- 
ing the long round worms, for instance, the plan of treatment is to 
give twice daily for three or four days a drench composed of turpen- 
tine, 1 ounce, and linseed oil 2 or 3 ounces, to be followed on the fourth 
day by a physic of Barbadoes aloes, 1 ounce. If the pin- worms are 
present (the ones that infest the large bowels), injections into the rec- 
tum of infusions of tobacco, infusions of quassia chips, one-half pound 
to a gallon of water, once or twice daily for a few days, and followed by 
a physic, are most beneficial. It should be borne in mind that intes- 
tinal worms are mostly seen in horses that are in poor condition ; and 
an essential part of our treatment then is to improve the appetite and 



39 

powers of digestion. This is best done by giving the vegetable tonics. 
One-half ounce of Peruvian bark, gentian, ginger, quassia, etc., is to 
be given twice a day in the feed or as a drench. Unless some such 
medicines and good food and pure water are given to tone up the di- 
gestive organs the worms will rapidly accumulate again, even though 
they may have all been expelled by the worm medicines proper. 

DISEASES OF THE INTESTINES. 

Spasmodic or cramp colic. — This is the name given to that form of colic 
produced by contraction, or spasm, of a portion of the small intestines. 
It is produced by indigestible food ; foreign bodies, as nails and stones 
in the bowels ; large drinks of cold water when the animal is warm ; 
driving a heated horse through deep streams, cold rains, draughts of 
cold air, etc. Unequal distribution of or interference with the nervous 
supply here produces cramp of the bowels, the same as external cramps 
are produced. Spasmodic colic is much more frequently met with in 
high-bred, round-barreled nervous horses than in coarse, lymphatic 
ones. 

Symptoms. — These should be carefully studied in order to diagnose 
this from other forms of colic requiring quite different treatment. Spas- 
modic colic always begins suddenly. If feeding, the horse is seen to 
stop abruptly, stamp impatiently, and probably look backwards. He 
soon evinces more acute pain, and this is shown by pawing, suddenly 
lying down, rolling, and getting up. There is then an interval of ease ; 
he will resume feeding, and appear to be entirely well. In a little while, 
however, the pains return and are increased in severity, only to again 
pass off for a time. As the attack progresses these intervals of ease 
become shorter and shorter, and pain may be continuous, though even 
now there are exacerbations of pain. Animals suffering from this form 
of colic evince the most intense pain ; they throw themselves down, roll 
over and over, jump up, whirl about, drop down again, paw, or strike, 
rather, with the front feet, steam and sweat, make frequent attempts to 
pass their urine, and the penis is partially erected. Only a small 
amount of water is passed at a time, and this is due to the bladder be- 
ing so frequently emptied, i. <?., there is but little water to pass. These 
attempts to urinate are almost always regarded as sure symptoms of 
trouble of the kidneys or bladder. In reality they are only one of the 
many ways in which the horse expresses the presence of pain. Allow 
me to digress slightly, and to assure the reader that diseases of the 
bladder or kidneys of the horse are exceedingly rare. The stomach and 
bowels are affected in a thousand instances where the kidneys or blad- 
der are once. Attempts to pass water and failure to do so are not 
enough to warrant us in pronouncing the case one of " trouble with his 
water," nor should we, if a horse yields or sinks when pinched over the 
loins, declare that kidney disease exists. Try this pressure on any 



40 

horse, and the great majority will be seen to thus yield; in fact, this is 
rather a sign or symptom of health than of disease. 

To recapitulate the symptoms of spasmodic colic: Keep in mind the 
history of the case, the type of horse, the suddenness of the attack, the 
intervals of ease (which become of shorter duration as the case pro- 
gresses), the violent pain, the normal temperature and pulse during the 
intervals of ease, the frequent attempts to urinate, the erection of the 
penis, etc., and there is but little danger of confounding this with 
other forms of colic. 

Treatment. — Since the pain is due to spasm or cramp of the bowels, 
medicines that overcome spasms — anti-spasmodics — are the ones indi- 
cated. Probably there is no medicine better than chloral hydrate. 
This is to be given in a dose of 1 ounce in a half pint of water as a 
drench. A very common and good remedy is sulphuric ether and laud- 
anum; of each 2 ounces in half pint of linseed oil. Another drench 
may be composed of 2 ounces each of sulphuric ether and alcohol in 8 
ounces of water. If nothing else is at hand we may give whisky; one- 
half pint in hot water. If relief is not obtained in one hour from any 
of the above doses, they may then be repeated. The body should be 
warmly clothed and perspiration induced. Blankets dipped in very hot 
water to which a small quantity of turpentine has been added should 
be placed around the belly and covered with dry blankets, or the abdo- 
men may be rubbed with stimulating liniments or mustard- water. The 
difficulty, however, of applying hot blankets and keeping them in place 
forces us in most instances to dispense with them. If the cramp is due 
to irritants in the bowels a cure is not complete until we have given a 
cathartic of 1 ounce of aloes or 1 pint of linseed-oil. Injections into the 
rectum of warm, soapy water, or salt and water, aid the cure. 

One word here about injections, or enemas, as they are called. These, 
as a rule, should be lukewarm and from 3 to 6 quarts are to be given 
at a time. They may be repeated every half hour if necessary. Great 
care is to be taken not to injure the rectum in giving rectal injections. 
A large syringe is the best means by which to give them. If this is 
not to be had, take a large elder, from which the pith has been removed, 
or a piece of hose. A large hog's bladder is to be filled with the fluid 
to be injected and tied about one end of the elder or hose. The point 
to be introduced into the rectum must be blunt, rounded, and smooth. 
It is to be thoroughly oiled and then carefully pushed through the anus 
in a slightly upward direction. Pressure upon the bladder will force 
its contents into the bowel. Much force must be avoided, for the 
rectum may be lacerated and serious complications or even death re- 
sult. Exercise will aid the action of the bowels in this and similar 
colicky troubles, but severe galloping or trotting is to be condemned. 
If the horse can have a loose box or paddock it is the best, as he will 
then take what exercise he wants. If the patient be extremely violent 
it is often wise to restrain him, since rupture of the stomach or dis- 
placement of the bowels may result and complicate the troubles. 



41 

Flatulent colic — Tympanites — Wind colic — Bloat. — Among the most 
frequent causes of this form of colic are to be mentioned sudden changes 
of food, too long fasting and food then given while the animal is ex- 
hausted, new hay or grain, large quantities of green food, food that 
has lain in the manger for some time and become sour, indigestible 
food, irregular teeth, crib-biting, and in fact anything that produces 
indigestion may produce flatulent colic. 

The symptoms of wind colic are not so suddenly developed, nor so 
severe as those of cramp colic. At first the horse is noticed to be dull, 
paws slightly, may or may not lie down. The pains from the start are 
continuous. The belly enlarges, and by striking it in front of the 
haunches a drum-like sound is elicited. If not soon relieved the above 
symptoms are aggravated, and in addition we notice difficult breath- 
ing, profuse perspiration, trembling of anterior limbs, sighing respira- 
tion, staggering from side to side, and, finally, plunging forward dead. 
The diagnostic symptom of flatulent colic is the distention of the bow- 
els with gas, detected by the bloated appearance and resonance on 
percussion. 

The treatment for wind colic differs very materially from that of 
cramp colic. Alkalines neutralize the gases formed, and must be 
promptly given. Probably as good a domestic remedy as can be had 
is baking-soda, in doses of from 2 to 4 ounces. If this fails, give chlo- 
ride of lime in half-ounce doses, or the same quantity of carbonate of 
ammonia every half hour until relieved. Absorbents are also of serv- 
ice, and we may give charcoal in any quantity. Eelaxants and anti- 
spasmodics are also beneficial in this form of colic. Chloral hydrate 
not only possesses these qualities, but it also is an anti-ferment and a 
pain-reliever. It is then particularly well adapted in the treatment of 
wind colic, and should be given in the same sized doses and in the 
manner directed for spasmodic colic. 

A physic should always be given in flatulent colic as early as possi- 
ble, the best being Barbadoes aloes in the dose already mentioned. 
Injections, per rectum, of turpentine 1 to 2 ounces, linseed-oil 8 ounces, 
may be given frequently to stimulate the peristaltic motion of the bow- 
els and favor the escape of wind. Blankets wrung out of hot water do 
much to afford relief; they should be renewed every 5 or 10 minutes 
and covered with a dry woolen blanket. This form of colic is much 
more fatal than cramp colic, and requires prompt and persistent treat- 
ment. It is entirely unsafe to predict the result, some apparently mild 
attacks going on to speedy death, while others that appear at the onset 
to be very severe yielding rapidly to treatment. Do not cease your 
efforts until you are sure the animal is dead. I was called, in one 
instance, and on reaching my patient the owner informed me that "the 
horse had just died." The heart, however, was still beating, and by 
energetic measures (tapping, etc.) 1 "brought him back to life," as the 
onlookers asserted. In these severe cases puncturing of the bowels in 



42 

the most prominent (distended) part by means of a small trocar and 
canula, or with the needle of a hypodermic syringe, thus allowing the 
escape of gas, has often saved life, and such punctures are not followed 
by any bad results in the majority of instances. 

Impaction of the large intestines. — This is a very common bowel trouble 
and one which, if not promptly recognized and properly treated, results 
in death. It is caused mostly by overfeeding, especially of grain, and 
I have noticed that it is much more common where rye is fed alone, or 
with other grains ; old, dry, hard hay, or stalks when largely fed ; defi- 
ciency of secretions of the intestinal tract, lack of water, want of exer- 
cise, paralysis of nerve endings, medicines, etc. 

Symptoms. — Impaction of the large bowels is to be diagnosed by a 
slight abdominal pain, which may disappear for a day or two to reap- 
pear with more violence. The feces is passed somewhat more frequently, 
but in smaller quantities and more dry ; the abdomen is full, but not 
distended with gas ; the horse at first is noticed to paw and soon begins 
to look back at his sides. Probably one of the most characteristic 
symptoms is the position assumed when down. He lies flat on his 
side, head and legs extended, occasionally raising his head to look 
toward his flank ; he remains on his side for from five to fifteen minutes 
at a time. Evidently this position is the one giving the most freedom 
from pain. He rises at times, walks about the stall, paws, looks at his 
sides, backs up against the stall which he presses with his tail, and 
soon lies down again, assuming his favored position. The bowels have 
ceased entirely to move. The pulse is but little changed at first, being 
full and sluggish ; later, if this condition is not overcome, it becomes 
rapid and feeble. I have known horses to suffer from impaction of the 
bowels for a week, yet eventually recover, and others have reported 
cases extending two or even three weeks which ended favorably. As 
a rule, however, they seldom last over four or five days, many, in fact, 
dying sooner than this. 

The treatment consists of efforts to produce movement of the bowels, 
and to prevent inflammation of the same from arising. A large cathartic 
is to be given as early as possible; either of the following are recom- 
mended: Powdered Barbadoes aloes 1 ounce, calomel 2 drams, and 
powdered mix vomica 1 dram ; or linseed oil 1 pint, and croton oil 15 
drops. Some favor the administration of Epsom salts, 1 pound, with 
one-quarter pound of common salt, claiming that this causes the horse 
to drink largely of water, and thus mechanically softening the impacted 
mass and favoring its expulsion. Whichever physic is selected it is 
essential that you give a full dose. This is much better than small and 
repeated doses. It must be borne in mind that horses require about 
twenty-four hours in which to respond to a physic, and under no cir- 
cumstances are physics to be repeated sooner than this. If aloes has 
been given and has failed to operate at the proper time, oil or some dif- 
ferent cathartic should then be administered. Allow the horse all the 
water he will drink. The action of the physic may be aided by giving, 



43 

every three or four hours, one-half ounce of tincture of belladonna, or 
one-half dram of powdered nux vomica. Copious enemas are to be 
given every hour, and should be varied ; giving first soapy water, then 
salt and water, or the emulsions of turpentine already alluded to in 
describing other diseases of the bowels. Enemas of glycerine, 2 to 4 
ounces, are often beneficial. Rubbing or kneading of the abdominal 
walls, the application of stimulating liniments or strong mustard 
water will also, at times, favor the expulsion of this mass. Walking 
exercise must occasionally be given. If this treatment is faithfully 
carried out from the start the majority of cases will terminate favorably. 
Where relief is not obtained inflammation of the bowels may ensue, 
and death follow from this cause. 

Constipation or costiveness is often witnessed in the horse, and particu- 
larly in the foal. Many colts die every year from failure on the part 
of the attendant to note the condition of the bowels soon after birth. 
Whenever the foal fails- to pass any feces, and in particular if it pre- 
sents any signs of colicky pains — straining, etc. — immediate attention 
must be given it. As a rule, it will only be necessary to give a few 
injections of soapy water in the rectum and to introduce the finger 
through the anus to break down any hardened mass of dung found 
there. If this is not effective, a purgative must be given. Oils are 
the best for these young animals, and I mostly select castor oil. giving 
from 2 to 4 ounces. The foal should always get the first of the mother's 
milk, as this milk, for a few days, possesses decided laxative properties. 
If a mare, while suckling, is taking laudanum or similar medicines, the 
foal should be fed during this time by hand and the mare milked upon 
the ground. Constipation in adult horses is mostly the result of long 
feeding on dry, innutritious food, deficiency of intestinal secretions, 
scanty water supply, or lack of exercise. If the case is not complicated 
with colicky symptoms, a change to light, sloppy diet, linseed gruel or 
tea, with plenty of exercise, is all that is required. If colic exists a 
cathartic is needed. In very many instances the constipated condition 
of the bowels is due to lack of intestinal secretions, and when so due, 
must be treated by giving fluid extract of belladonna three times a day 
in 2-dram doses, and handful doses daily of Epsom salts in the feed. 

ALIMENTARY CONCRETIONS — GASTRIC AND INTESTINAL. 

Gastric concretions, calculi (stones) in the stomach.— There are prob- 
ably but few symptoms exhibited by the horse that will lead us to sus- 
pect the presence of gastric calculi, and possibly none by which we can 
unmistakably assert their presence. Stones in the stomach have been 
most frequently found in miller's horses. A small piece of the mill-stone 
or other foreign body may serve as a nucleus around which is deposited 
in layers the calcareous substances which abound in their feed (the 
sweepings of the mill floor, mixed with good food). I have noticed, and 
it is generally recorded by veterinary writers, that a depraved and 



44 

Capricious appetite is common in horses that have a stone forming in 
their stomach. There is a disposition to eat the wood work of the sta- 
ble, earth, and, in fact, almost any substance within their reach. This 
symptom must not, however, be considered as pathognomonic, since it 
is observed when calculi are not present. Occasional colics may result 
from these " stomach stones," and when these lodge at the outlet of the 
stomach they may give rise to symptoms of engorged stomach, already 
described. I remember one instance in which I found a stone that 
weighed nearly 4 pounds in the stomach of a horse. 

The position that seems to afford the most relief to the afflicted ani- 
mal is sitting upon the haunches. Constipation may or may not be 
present. From all this we may conclude that there is reason to sus- 
pect the presence of stone in the stomach, if there is a history of de- 
praved appetite; repeated attacks of colic (and particularly if these have 
recovered abruptly)', and the position sought by the horse while suffer- 
ing — sitting on the haunches, or standing with the front feet upon 
some elevation. During the fatal attack the symptoms are simply 
those of obstruction, followed by those of inflammation and gangrene, 
and are not diagnostic. There is, of course, no treatment that will 
prove effective. We can simply give remedies to move the bowels, to 
relieve pain, and to combat inflammation. 

Intestinal concretions, calculi (stones) in the intestines. — These concre- 
tions are found mostly in the large bowels, though they are occasionally 
met with in the small intestines. They are of various sizes, weighing 
from 1 ounce to 25 pounds; they may be single or multiple, and differ 
in composition and appearance, some being soft (composed mostly of 
animal or vegetable matter), while others are porous or honey-combed 
(consisting of animal and mineral matter), and others again that are 
entirely hard and stone-like. The hair-balls, so common to the stomach 
and intestines of cattle, are very rare in the horse. Intestinal calculi 
form around some foreign body as a rule, mostly a nail, piece of wood, 
or something of this description, whose shape they assume to a certain 
extent. Layers are arranged concentrically around such nucleus until 
the sizes above spoken of are formed. These stones are also often found 
in millers' horses, as well also as horses in limestone districts where the 
water is hard. When the calculi attain a sufficient size and become 
lodged or blocked in some part of the intestines, they cause obstruction, 
inflammation of the bowels, colicky symptoms, and death. Some vete- 
rinarians pretend to diagnose the presence of these bodies during life, 
but I know of no certain signs or symptoms that reveal them. Recur- 
ring colics and character of food and water may enable us to make a 
good guess at times, but nothing more. 

The symptoms will be those of obstruction of the bowels. Upon post- 
mortem examinations we will discover these stones, mostly in the large 
bowels ; the intestines will be inflamed or gangrenous about the point 
of obstruction. Sometimes calculi have been expelled by the action 



45 

of a physic, or they may be removed by the hand when found to occupy 
the last gut. 

Treatment. — As in concretions of the stomach, there can be but little 
done more than to overcome spasm (if any exists), and to give physics 
with the hope of dislodging the stone or stones and carrying them on 
and outward. 

Intussusception or Invagination is the slipping of a portion of the in- 
testine into another portion immediately adjoining, like a partially 
turned glove finger. This may occur at any part of the bowels, but is 
most frequent in the small guts. The invaginated portion may be 
slight — 2 or 3 inches only — or extensive, measuring as many feet. 
Treves, who has written a most valuable work on intestinal obstruc- 
tion in man, may be quoted in substance, to some extent. He cautions 
us not to confound what he classes as "obstructive intussusception' 7 
with intussusception of the dying. This latter is often seen upon 
post-mortem examination of children, or with us in young colts. These 
invaginations occur shortly before death, and are due to irregular con- 
tractions of the bowels that take place during the act of dying. Mus- 
cular actions are, at this time, irregular and tumultuous, and it is not 
surprising that intussusception is produced. "Intussusceptions of the 
dying" are characterized by the following peculiarities : They are small, 
free from any trace of congestion, inflammation, or adhesion, and can 
very easily be reduced by slight traction ; they are apt to be mul- 
tiple, and are most frequently directed forward. In obstructive intus- 
susception, on the other hand, the in turned bowel is in the direction of 
the anus. There are adhesions of the intestines at this point, conges- 
tion, inflammation, or even gangrene. 

Causes of invagination. — This accident is most likely to occur in horses 
that are suffering from spasm of the bowel or in those where a small 
portion of the gut is paralyzed. The natural worm or ring-like con- 
traction of the gut favors the passage of the contracted or paralyzed 
portion into that immediately behind it. It may occur during the ex- 
istence of almost any abdominal trouble, as diarrhea, inflammation of 
the bowels, or from injuries, exposure to cold, etc. 

Symptoms. — Unless the invaginated portion of the gut becomes strang- 
ulated, probably no symptoms will be appreciable, except constipation. 
Strangulation of the bowel may take place suddenly, and the horse die 
within twenty-four hours, or it may occur after several days, a week 
even, and death follow at this time. There are no symptoms positively 
diagnostic. Colicky pains, more or less severe, are observed, and there 
are no, or but few, passages of dung. I have observed severe straining 
in some instances of intussusception, and this should be given due 
credit when it occurs. As death approaches the horse sweats profusely, 
sighs, presents an anxious countenance, the legs and ears become cold, 
and there is often freedom from pain immediately before death. In some 
rare instances the horse recovers, even though the invaginated portion of 



46 

the gut has become strangulated. The imprisoned portion here sloughs 
away so gradually that a union has taken place between the intestines 
at tbe point where one portion has slipped into that behind it. The 
piece sloughing off is found passed with the manure. Such cases are 
exceedingly rare, but their possibility should guide us in our treatment. 
Cathartic medicines are more calculated to do harm than good. We 
should treat with anodynes and anti-spasmodics, chloral hydrate, laud- 
anum, and sulphuric ether, and medicines to prevent inflammation. 
Some practitioners favor the administration of powdered opium, 1 to 2 
drams, every three or four hours. Injections of salt and water or 
emulsions of turpentine are given with the somewhat fanciful idea of pro- 
ducing peristalsis of the iutestines in a direction opposite to the normal 
one, t. e., contraction from the anus forward. If this can be produced by 
these or any other means, it will prove a valuable adjunct to other 
treatment. Soft feed and mucilaginous and nourishing drinks are to be 
given during these attacks. 

Volvulus, Gut-tie or Twisting of the Bowels. — These are the terms ap- 
plied to the bowels when twisted or knotted. This accident is rather a 
common one, and frequently results from the violent manner in which 
a horse throws himself about when attacked by spasmodic colic. The 
symptoms are the same as those of intussusception and obstructions of 
the bowels; the same directions as to treatment are therefore to be 
observed. 

Diarrhea is due to eating moldy or musty food, drinking stagnant 
water, diseased condition of the teeth, eating irritating substances, to 
being kept on low, marshy pastures, and exposure during cold nights, 
low, damp stables, or to some morbid or inflammatory condition of the 
intestinal canal or some of its annexed organs. It is more frequently 
a symptom of functional disorder than an organic disease. Some horses 
are predisposed to scour and are called "washy" by horsemen; they 
are those of long bodies, long legs, and narrow, flat sides. Horses of 
this build are almost sure to scour if fed or watered immediately before 
being put to work. Fast or road work, of course, aggravates this 
trouble. Diarrhea may exist as a complication of other diseases, as 
pneumonia and influenza for instance, and again during the diseases of 
the liver. 

The symptoms are the frequent evacuations of liquid stools, with or 
without pronounced abdominal pain, loss of appetite, emaciation, etc. 

Treatment is at times very simple, but requires the utmost care and 
judgment. If due to faulty food or water it is sufficient to change 
these. If it results from some irritant in the intestines, this is best 
gotten rid of by the administration of an oleaginous purge, the diarrhea 
mostly disappearing with the cessation of the operation of the medicine. 
If, however, purging continues, it may be checked by giving wheat flour 
in water, starch water, white-oak bark tea, chalk, opium, or half-dram 
doses of sulphuric acid in one-half pint of water twice or thrice daily. 



47 

I have good results from powdered opium, 2 drams, and subnitrate of 
bismuth, 1 ounce, repeated three times a day. One-quarter pound 
doses of the "Thoinpsonian composition," to which may be added 1 
ounce of baking soda, given two or three times a day, are frequently 
effective. It should be remembered in all cases to look to the water 
and feed the horse is receiving. If either of these is at fault they are 
at once to be discontinued. We should feed sparingly of good, easily 
digested foods. In that peculiar build of nervous horses that scour on 
the road but little can be done, as a rule. They should be watered and 
fed as long as possible before going on a drive. If there is much flat- 
ulency accompanying diarrhea, baking soda or other alkaline medicines 
often produce a cure, while if the discharges have a very disagreeable 
odor, this can be corrected by 1 ounce of sulphite of soda or half-dram 
doses of carbolic acid in water, repeated twice a day. Be slow to resort 
to either the vegetable or mineral astringents, since the majority of 
cases will yield to change of food and water, or the administration of oils. 
Afterwards feed upon wheat-flour gruel or other light foods. The 
body should be warmly clothed. 

Superpurgation. — This is the designation of that diarrhea or flux 
from the bowels that, at times, is induced by and follows the action of 
a physic. It is accompanied by much irritation or even inflammation 
of the bowels, and is always of a serious character. Although in rare 
instances it follows from a usual dose of physic and where every pre- 
caution has been taken, it is most likely to result under the following 
circumstances : Too large a dose of physic ; to giving physics to horses 
suffering from pneumonia, influenza, or other debilitating diseases ; to 
riding or driving a horse when purging ; to exposure or draughts of 
cold air, or giving large quantities of cold water while the physic is 
operating. There is always danger of superpurgation if a physic is 
given to a horse suffering from diseases of the respiratory organs. Small 
and often-repeated physics are also to be avoided, as they produce de- 
bility and great depression of the system and predispose to this dis- 
order. When a physic is to be given we should give the horse sloppy 
food until the medicine begins to operate ; we must clothe the body 
with a warm blanket ; keep out of draughts ; give only chilled water in 
small quantities. After a horse has purged from twelve to twenty-four 
hours it can mostly be stopped or " set," as horsemen say, by feeding 
on dry oats and hay. Should the purging continue, however, it is 
best treated by giving demulcent drinks — linseed tea, oatmeal or wheat- 
flour gruel. After this the astringents spoken of for diarrhea may be 
given. Besides this the horse is to receive brandy in doses of from 2 
to 4 ounces, with milk and eggs, four or five times a day. 

Laminitis "founder" is a frequent sequelae of superpurgation and is 
to be guarded against by removing the shoes and standing the horse on 
moist sawdust or some similar bedding. 

Ztysertfer^Williams defines dysentery, or bloody flux, as an intea* 



48 

tinal inflammatory action of a peculiar or specific character, attended 
with fever, occasional abdominal pain, and fluid alviue discharges, 
mingled with blood or albuminous materials; the tissue changes, which 
are usually regarded as special, being situated chiefly in the minute 
gland structures and inter connective tissue of the large intestine, and 
of an ulcerative or gangrenous character. To be plainer, dysentery is 
characterized by coffee-colored or bloody discharges, liquid, and very 
offensive in odor, and passed with much tenesmus (straining). It is 
very rare in the horse. 

Causes. — Probably the most common cause is keeping young horses 
in particular for a long time on low, wet, marshy pastures, without 
other feed (a diarrhea of long standing sometimes terminates in dysen- 
tery) ; exposure during cold, wet weather; decomposed foods; stagnant 
water that contains large quantities of decomposing vegetable matter; 
low, damp, and dark stables, particularly if crowded ; the existence of 
some disease, as tuberculosis of the abdominal form. 

Symptoms. — The initial symptom is a chill, which probably escapes 
notice in the majority of instances. The discharges are offensive and 
for the most part liquid, although it is common to find lumps of solid 
fecal matter floating in this liquid portion ; shreds of mucous membrane 
and blood are passed, or the evacuations may be muco-purulent; there 
is much straining, and, rarely, symptoms of abdominal pain ; the horse 
lies down a great deal; the pulse is quickened and the temperature 
elevated. The appetite may remain fair, but in spite of this the horse 
rapidly loses flesh and becomes a sorry-looking object. Death, rarely 
follows under two to three weeks. Thirst is a prominent symptom. 

Treatment. — This is most unsatisfactory, and 1 am inclined to place 
more dependence upon the care and feed than any medication that may 
be adopted. First of all the horse must be placed in a dry, warm, yet 
well- ventilated stable; the skin is to receive attention by frequent rub- 
bings of the surface of the body, with blankets, and bandages to the 
legs. The water must be pure and given in small quantities; the food, 
that which is light and easily digested. Medicinally, we must give at 
first a light dose of castor oil, about one-half pint, to which has been 
added 2 ounces of laudanum. The vegetable or mineral astringents 
are also to be given. Starch injections containing laudanum often 
afford great relief. The strength must be kept up by milk punches, 
eggs, beef tea, oat-meal gruel, etc. In spite of the best care and treat- 
ment, however, dysentery mostly proves fatal. 

Hemorrhoids — Piles. — These are rare in horses, although more fre- 
quently met with than most people suppose. They are diagnosed by 
the appearance of bright-red irregular tumors after defecation, which 
may remain visible at all times or be seen only when the horse is down 
or after passing his manure. They are mostly due to constipation, to 
irritation or injuries, or follow from the severe straining during dysen- 
tery. I have observed them to follow from severe labor pains in thQ 
mare. 



49 

Treatment. — Attention must be paid to the condition of the bowels; 
they should be soft, but purging is to be avoided. The tumors should 
be washed in warm water and thoroughly cleansed, after which we must 
scarify them and gently but firmly squeeze out the liquid that will be 
seen to follow the shallow incisions. While this treatment may be 
considered as heroic, to say the least, by medical practitioners, yet it 
has invariably proven successful in my experience, no bad results fol- 
lowing. After thus squeezing these tumors and before replacing 
through the anus, bathe the parts with some anodyne wash. I prefer 
for this purpose the glycerite of tannin and laudanum in equal parts. 
Mucilaginous injections into the rectum may be of service for a few days. 

Enteritis is an inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the 
bowels. Thisinflammationmayextendand involve the muscular or even 
serous coats. From my observations enteritis is exceedingly rare in the 
horse unless caused by irritants or corrosive poisons, or following from 
invagination, twisting of the bowels, etc. In fact, I can not remember 
ever to have seen but one case of enteritis apart from these or similar 
causes. It is claimed, however, by some that enteritis may be pro- 
duced by drinking when warm large quantities of cold water, driving 
through deep streams when the animal is heated, washing the entire 
surface of the body at such a time, and by feeding moldy or musty 
foods, or keeping the horse in damp cellar stables. 

Symptoms. — Febrile symptoms, from the onset, mark all attacks of 
idiopathic enteritis. The membranes of the nose, mouth, and eyes are 
congested and reddened, the mouth is hot and dry, respirations are in- 
creased, the pulse is hard and rapid, temperature is elevated to 103° or 
105° Fah. Colicky pains are continuous. The horse walks about the 
stall, paws, lies down carefully, and most frequently turns himself upon 
his back by the side of the stall and remains in this position for some 
time. Thirst is present. As a rule, the bowels are sluggish or even 
entirely inactive, but when this disease is due to irritant foods or med- 
icines purging and tympanites may be present. The inflammatory 
pulse, high temperature, continuous pain, which is increased upon 
pressure, position of the horse when down, colduess of ears and legs, 
etc., will enable us to diagnose a case of enteritis. Where enteritis fol- 
lows as a complication of diseases before described, the symptoms will 
depend upon the character of the original intestinal disorder. 

Treatment. — We must rely almost wholly upon opium internally. 
Give 1 or 2 drams of powdered opium every three or four hours. 
One dram of extract of belladonna should be added to the above 
doses of opium. Calomel in 1-dram doses twice a day is also recom- 
mended. As a rule, purgatives and enemas are not to be given ; our 
object is to keep the bowels as quiet as possible. Hot blankets applied 
to the belly, or counter-irritants to abdominal walls, are advisable. Give 
mucilaginous drinks, as linseed tea, oatmeal gruel, and starch water. 
Avoid all solid foods that are in the least hard, dry, and indigestible. 
11035 4 



50 

If, when the symptoms of inflammation subside, the bowels do not act, 
try to encourage this by means of walking exercise and injections per 
rectum. Should these fail a mild cathartic is indicated. 

Another form of disease, described by some as enteritis, by others as 
muco- enteritis and " apoplexy of the large bowels "is much more common. 
It is perhaps the most rapidly fatal of all bowel diseases, and is seen 
most frequently in heavy draught horses. Its causes are hard to deter- 
mine, but it may follow exposure to cold storms, immersing the body 
in cold water, and in fact about the same causes that produce true 
enteritis. In this disease we find in the large bowels mostly an exten- 
sive effusion or extravasation of blood between the mucous and muscular 
coats, giving a bluish or black color. The intestinal walls are thickened 
by this effusion and sometimes measure from 2 to 3 inches in thickness, 

The symptoms are severe and persistent pain, labored respiration, 
rapid and wealc pulse, profuse perspiration, and paleness of the visible 
mucous membranes. A peculiar, anxious expression exists that, once 
seen, is almost diagnostic. Toward the last the horse sighs, breathes 
stertorously, staggers and pitches about, and dies in a state of delirium. 
They rarely live more than ten or twelve hours, and often die inside of 
six hours. 

Treatment. — This is of but little avail, since the case has mostly made 
great progress before being seen. Probably the best domestic remedy 
is white-oak bark tea given in large and frequently repeated doses. 
Tannic acid, 1 dram, or fluid extract of ergot, 1 ounce, are preferable, 
if at hand, and can be given every half hour until four or five doses 
have been taken. Hot applications to the body — blankets wrung out 
of hot water and sprinkled with turpentine — are to be applied fre- 
quently. Mustard water should be applied with smart friction to the 
legs. Could we see these cases at their inception general blood-letting 
might prove of service. 

Hernia. — There are several different kinds of herniae that require no- 
tice at this point, not all of which, however, produce any serious symp- 
toms or results. Abdominal hernia or ruptures are divided into reduci- 
ble^ irreducible, and strangulated, according to condition; and mto ingui- 
nal, scrotal, ventral, umbilical and diaphragmatic, according to their 
situation. A hernia is reducible when it can be easily returned into the 
abdomen. It consists of a soft swelling, without heat, pain, or any 
uneasiness, generally larger after a full meal, and decreases in size as 
the bowels become empty. An irreducible hernia is one that can not be 
returned into the abdomen, and yet does not cause any pain or uneasi- 
ness. Strangulated hernia is one where the contents of the sac are 
greatly distended, or where from pressure upon the blood-vessels of the 
imprisoned portion the venous circulation is checked or stopped, thereby 
causing extensive congestion, swelling, inflammation, and, if not re- 
lieved, gangrene of the part and death of the animal. Hernia may be 
congenital and accidental or acquired. 



51 

Congenital scrotal hernia. — Not a few foals are noticed from birth to 
have an enlarged scrotum, which gradually increases in size up to about 
the sixth mouth, sometimes longer. In some instances I have noticed 
the scrotum of a six-months old colt to be as large as that of an adult 
stallion, and have been repeatedly asked to prescribe treatment for it. 
This is entirely unnecesary in ninety-nine out of every hundred cases, 
as this enlargement entirely disappears by the time the colt has reached 
his second year. Any interference, medicinal or surgical, is worse than 
useless. If the intestine contained within the scrotum should at any 
time become strangulated, it must then be treated the same as in an 
adult horse. 

Scrotal hernia is caused by dilatation of the sheath of the testicle, com- 
bined with relaxation of the fibrous tissue surrounding the inguinal ring, 
thus allowing the intestine to descend to the scrotum. At first this is in- 
termittent, appearing during work and returning when the horse is at 
rest. For a long time this form of hernia may not cause the least uneasi- 
ness or distress. In course of time, however, the imprisoned gut becomes 
filled with feces, its return into the abdominal cavity is prevented, and 
it soon becomes strangulated. While the gut is thus filling the horse 
often appears dull, is disinclined to move, appetite is impaired, and there 
is rumbling and obstruction of the bowels. Colicky symptoms now 
supervene. I do not wish to imply that strangulation and its conse- 
quent train of symptoms always follows in scrotal hernia, as I know of an 
old horse where the scrotum, by weight of the contained gut, forms a 
pendulous tumor reaching half way to the hock, and yet he has never 
experienced any serious inconvenience. 

Inguinal hernia is but an incomplete scrotal hernia, and, like the lat- 
ter, may exist and cause no signs of distress, or again it may become 
strangulated and cause the death of the animal. Inguinal hernia is seen 
mostly in stallions, next in geldings, and very rarely in the mare. Bear- 
ing in mind that scrotal hernia is seen only in horses, we can proceed to 
detail the symptoms of both strangulated, inguinal, and scrotal hernia 
at the same time. When, during the existence of colicky symptoms, 
we find a horse kicking with his hind feet while standing, or lying upon 
his back, we should look to the inguinal region and scrotum. If scro- 
tal hernia exists the scrotum will be enlarged and lobulated; by press- 
ure we may force a portion of the contents of the gut back into the 
abdomen, eliciting a gurgling sound. If we take a gentle but firm hold 
upon the enlarged scrotum and then have an assistant cause the horse 
to cough, the swelling will be felt to expand and as quickly contract 
again. 

The history of these cases will materially aid us, as the owner can 
often assure us of preceding attacks of "colic," more or less severe, 
that have been instantaneously relieved in some (to him) unaccounta- 
ble manner. The colicky symptoms of these herniae are not diagnostic, 
but, probably, more closely resemble those of enteritis than any other 



52 

bowel diseases. Cold sweats, particularly of the scrotum and thighs, are 
held by some writers to be pathognomonic. 

The diagnosis can, in many cases, only be made by a veterinarian, 
wben he lias recourse to a rectal examination ; the bowels can here be 
felt entering the internal abdominal ring. If the reader cau be sure of 
the existence of these herniae, he should secure the horse upon its back, 
aud, with a hand in the rectum, endeavor to catch hold of the wander- 
ing bowel aud pull it gently back into the cavity of the abdomen. Press- 
ure should be made upon the scrotum during this time. I once suc- 
ceeded in reducing a strangulated scrotal hernia, after having cast the 
auimal, by keeping a bag of cracked ice upon the scrotum, thus con- 
densing the imprisoned gases and causing contraction of the swelling. 
If these meaus fail a veterinarian must be called to reduce the hernia 
by means of incising the inguinal ring, replacing the intestines, and 
castrate, using clamps aud performing the "covered operation." 

Ventral hernia. — In this form of hernia the protrusion is through 
some accidental opening or rupture of some of the abdominal coats or 
coverings. It may occur at any part of the belly except at the umbili- 
cus, and is caused by kicks, blows, hooks, severe jumping or pulling, 
etc. Ventral hernia is most common in pregnant mares, and is here 
due to the weight of the foetus or some degenerative changes taking 
place in the abdominal coats. It is recognized by the appearance of a 
swelling, at the base of which can be felt the opening or rent in the 
abdominal tunics, and from the fact that the swelling containing the 
intestines can be made to disappear when the animal is placed in a 
favorable position. 

Treatment. — In many instances there is no occasion for treatment, and 
again, where the hernial sac is extensive, treatment is of no avail. If 
the hernia is small we may attempt a cure by the methods to be de- 
scribed in treating of umbilical hernia. If we are fortunate enough to 
be present when the hernia occurs, and particularly if it is not too large, 
we may, by the proper application of a pad and broad bandage, effect 
a perfect cure. 

Umbilical hernia is the passing of any portion of the bowel or omen- 
tum through the navel, forming a " tumor" at this point. This is often 
congenital in our animals, and is due to the imperfect closure of the 
umbilicus and to the position of the body. Many cases of umbilical 
hernia, like inguinal and scrotal of the congenital kind, disappear 
entirely by the time the animal reaches its second or third year. Ad- 
vancing age favors cure in these cases from the fact that the omentum 
(swinging support of the bowels) is proportionally shorter in adults 
than in foals, thus lifting the intestines out of the hernial sac aud 
allowing the opening in the walls to close. Probably one of the most 
frequent causes of umbilical hernia in foals is the practice of keeping 
them too long from their dams, causing them to fret and worry, and 
to neigh or cry by the hour. The contraction of the abdominal muscles 



53 

and pressure of tbe intestines during neighing seem to open the um- 
bilicus and induce hernia. Accidents may cause umbilical hernia in 
adults in the same manner as ventral hernia is produced, though this 
is very rare. 

Treatment. — The treatment of umbilical hernia varies much with 
different practitioners. We should remember the fact that congenital 
hernia} are often removed with age, but probably congenital umbilical 
hernia? less frequently than others. Among the many plans of treat- 
ment are to be mentioned the application of a pad over the tumor, the 
pad being held in place by a broad, tight bandage placed around the 
animal's body. The chief objection to this is the difficulty in keeping 
the pad in its place. Blisters are often applied over the swelling, and 
as the skin hardens and contracts by the formation of scabs an 
artficial bandage or pressure is produced that at times is successful. 
Another treatment that has gained considerable repute of late years 
consists in first clipping off the hair over the swelling. Nitric acid is 
then applied by a small brush, using only enough to moisten the skin. 
This sets up a deep-seated adhesive inflammation, which, in very many 
cases, closes the opening in the navel. Still another plan is to inject a 
solution of common salt by means of the hypodermic syringe at three 
or four points about the base of the swelling. This acts in the same 
manner as the preceding, but in my experience is not as effectual. 

Others again, after keeping the auimal fasting for a few hours, cast 
and secure it upon its back ; the bowel is then carefully returned into 
the abdomen. The skin over the opening is to be pinched up and one 
or two skewers are to be run through the skin from side to side as close 
as possible to the umbilical opening. These skewers are kept in place 
by passing a cord around the skin between them and the abdomen and 
securely tied. Great care must be taken not to draw these cords too 
tight, as this would cause a speedy slough of the skin, the intestines 
would extrude, and death result. If properly applied an adhesion is 
established between the skin and the umbilicus which effectually closes 
the orifice. 

Diaphragmatic hernia. — This consists of the passage of any of the 
abdominal viscera through a rent in the diaphragm (midriff) into the 
cavity of the thorax. It is rather a rare accident and one often impos- 
sible to diagnose during life. Colicky symptoms, accompanied by great 
difficulty in breathing, and the peculiar position so often assumed 
(that of sitting upon the haunches) are somewhat characteristic of this 
trouble, though these symptoms, as we have already seen, may be pres- 
ent during diseases of the stomach or anterior portion of the bowels. 
Even could we pronounce, with certainty, this form of hernia, there is 
little or nothing that can be done. Leading the horse up a very steep 
gangway or causing him to rear up may possibly cause the hernial 
portion to return to its natural position. This is not enough, however ; 
it must be kept there. 



54 

Peritonitis is an inflammation of the serous membrane lining the 
cavity of and covering the viscera contained within the abdomen. 
It is very rare to see a case of idiopathic peritonitis. It is, however, 
somewhat common from extension of the inflammatory action involving 
organs covered by the peritoneum. Peritonitis is often caused by in- 
juries, as punctured wounds of the abdomen, severe blows or kicks, or, 
as is still more common, following the operation of castration. It fol- 
lows frequently from strangulated hernise, invagination, rupture of the 
stomach, intestines, liver, or womb. 

Symptoms. — Peritonitis is mostly preceded by a chill ; the horse is not 
disposed to move, and if compelled to do so, moves with a stiff or sore 
gait; he paws with the front feet, and probably strikes at his belly 
with the hind ones ; lies down very carefully, and as the pain is in- 
creased while down, he maintains during most of the time the standing 
position ; he walks uneasily about the stall. Constipation is usually 
present. Pressure on the belly causes acute pain, and the horse will 
bite, strike, or kick at you if so disturbed ; the abdomen is tucked up ; 
the extremities fine and cold. The temperature is higher than normal, 
reaching from 102° to 104° Fah. The pulse in peritonitis is almost, of 
itself, diagnostic; it is quickened, beating from seventy to ninety beats 
per minute, and is hard and wiry. This peculiarity of the pulse is 
characteristic of inflammation of the serous membrane, and if occurring 
with colicky symptoms, and, in particular, if following any injuries, 
accidental or surgical, of the peritoneum, we may rest assured that 
peritonitis is present. Peritonitis in the horse is mostly fatal when it 
is at all extensive. If death does not occur in a short time, the inflam- 
mation assumes a chronic form, in which there is an extensive effusion 
of water in the cavity of the belly, constituting what is known as 
ascites, and which, as a rule, results in death. 

The treatment of peritonitis is to be somewhat like that of enteritis. 
Opium in powder, 1 to 2 drams, with calomel, one-half dram, is to be 
given every two, three, or four hours, and constitute our main de- 
pendence in this disease. Extensive counter-irritants over the belly, 
consisting of mustard-plasters, turpentine stupes, or even mild blisters, 
are highly recommended. Purgatives must never be given during this 
complaint. Should we desire to move the bowels it can be done by 
gentle enemas, though it is seldom necessary to resort even to this. 

Ascites, or dropsy of the abdomen, is mostly seen as a result of sub- 
acute or chronic peritonitis, but may be due to diseases of the liver, 
kidneys, heart, or lungs. There will be found, on opening the cavity 
of the belly, a large collection of yellowish or reddish liquid ; from a 
few quarts to several gallons may be present. It may be clear in 
color, though generally it is yellowish or of a red tint, and contains 
numerous loose flakes of coagulable lymph. 

Symptoms. — There is slight tenderness on pressure ; awkward gait of 
the hind legs j the horse is dull, and may have occasional very slight 



65 

colicky pains, shown by looking back and striking at tbe belly with 
the hind feet. Oftener, however, these colicky symptoms are absent. 
Diarrhea often precedes death, but during the progress of the disease 
the bowels are alternately constipated and loose. On percussing the 
abdominal walls we find that dullness exists to the same height on both 
sides of the belly; by suddenly pushing or striking the abdomen we 
can hear the rushing or flooding of water. If the case is an advanced 
one the horse is pot-bellied to the extreme, and dropsical swellings are 
seen under the belly and upon the legs. 

Treatment is, as a rule, unsatisfactory. Saline cathartics, as Epsom 
or Glauber salts, and diuretics, ounce doses of saltpeter, are to be 
given. If a veterinarian is at hand he should withdraw the accumula- 
tion of water by tapping and should then endeavor to prevent its re- 
currence (though this is almost sure to follow) by giving three times a 
day saltpeter, 1 ounce, and iodide of potash, 1 dram, and by the appli- 
cation of mustard or blisters over the abdominal walls. Tonics, min- 
eral and vegetable, are also indicated. Probably the best tonic is one 
consisting of powdered sulphate of iron, gentian, and ginger in equal 
parts. A heaping tablespoonful of the mixture is to be given as a 
drench or mixed with the feed, twice a day. Good nutritious foods 
and gentle exercise complete the treatment. 

DISEASES OF THE LIVER. 

This organ in the horse is but rarely the seat of disease, and when 
we consider how frequently the liver of man is affected, this can not 
but appear strange to all. There is a difference of the anatomical ar^ 
rangetnent of the liver of the horse from that of man that may to some 
extent account for this rarity of disease in the former. It is very com- 
mon to hear the would-be veterinarian assert that a horse " has disease 
of his gall-bladder." He thus displays his ignorance, as the horse has 
no such biliary reservoir. This absence of the gall-bladder may ac- 
count to a certain extent for his freedom from liver diseases ; as over- 
distension of this and the presence in it of calculi (stones) in man is a 
frequent source of trouble. In domestic animals, as in man, hot cli- 
mates tend to produce diseases of the liver, just as in cold climates 
lung diseases prevail. Not only are diseases of the liver rare in horses, 
but they are also very obscure, and in many cases pass totally unob- 
served until after death. There are some symptoms, however, which, 
when present, should make us examine the liver as carefully as possi- 
ble. These are jaundice (yellowness of the mucous membranes of the 
mouth, nose, and eyes) and the condition of the dung, it being light in 
color and pasty in appearance. 

Hepatitis, inflammation of the liver, may be general or local and may 
assume an acute or chronic form. The symptoms of acute hepatitis are : 
Dullness ; the horse is suffering from some internal pain, but not of a se- 
vere type; constipated and clay-colored dung balls, scanty and high- 



56 

colored urine, and general febrile symptoms. If lying down he is mostly 
found on the left side; looks occasionally toward the right side, which, 
upon close inspection, may be found to be slightly enlarged over the 
posterior ribs, where pain upon pressure is also evinced. Obscure 
lameness in front, of the right leg mostly, is said by some of the best 
veterinary writers to be a symptom of hepatitis. The horse, toward the 
last, reels or staggers in bis gait and falls backward in a fainting fit, 
during one of which he finally succumbs. Death is sometimes due to 
rapture of the enveloping coat of the liver or of some of its blood-ves- 
sels. 

Among the causes that lead to this disease we must mention first the 
stimulating effect of overfeeding, particularly during hot weather. 
Those horses that are well fed and receive but little exercise — old favor- 
ites that are being liberally fed and have passed the time of service, 
pensioned heroes of years of faithful toil — these are the best subjects 
for diseases of this organ. We must add to these causes the more 
mechanical ones, as injuries on the right side over the liver, worms in 
the liver, gall-stones in the biliary ducts, foreign bodies, as needles or 
nails that have been swallowed and in their wanderings have entered 
the liver, and, lastly, in some instances, the extension of inflammation 
from neighboring parts, thus involving this organ. Acute hepatitis may 
terminate in chronic inflammation, abscesses, rupture of the liver, or 
may disappear, leaving behind no trace of disease whatever. 

Treatment. — This should consist, at first, of the administration of 1 
ounce of Barbadoes aloes or other physic. A large blister is to be ap- 
plied to the right side, letting it extend from a little behind the girth 
backward to the last rib and in width about 12 to 14 inches midway 
between the spine above and the middle of the belly below. General 
blood-letting, if had recourse to early, must prove of much benefit in 
acute inflammation of the liver. The vein in the neck — jugular — must 
be opened, and from 4 to 6 quarts of blood may be drawn. Saline medi- 
cines, to act on the kidneys, should follow this treatment; 1-ounce doses 
of saltpeter or muriate of ammonia, repeated three or four times a day, 
are probably as good as any. The horse is to be fed sparingly on soft 
food, bran-mashes chiefly. If we prove successful and recovery takes 
place, see to it that the horse afterwards gets regular exercise and that 
his food is not of a highly nutritious character, or excessive. 

It will, I think, be useless to attempt much of a description of chronic 
hepatitis, the symptoms of this trouble being so obscure that the veteri- 
nary surgeon, in most cases, can scarcely hope to do more than diag- 
nose it by exclusion. True, if a horse has had acute hepatitis and re- 
mains dull for too great a length of time, with occasional slight colicky 
symptoms, yellow membranes, etc., we may not fear of being far wrong 
in saying that this disease has passed to the chronic form ; but to diag- 
nose this form of hepatitis, without any such previous knowledge of 
the case, is, to tell the truth, very often " guess-work " with us. 



57 

Jaundice — Icterus — The Yellows. — This is a condition caused by the 
retention and absorption of bile into the blood. It was formerly con- 
sidered to be a disease of itself, but can not, I think, be accepted as 
more than a symptom, or at most as expressing the existence of func- 
tional disorder of the liver. " The Yellows " is observed by looking at 
the eyes, nose, and mouth, when it will be seen that these parts are 
yellowish instead of the pale-pink color of health. In white or light- 
colored horses the skin even may show this yellow tint. The urine is 
saffron- colored, the dung is of a dirty gray color, and constipation is 
mostly present. Jaundice may be present as a symptom of almost any 
inflammatory disease. We kno w that when an animal is " fevered " 
the secretions are checked, the bile is retained and absorbed through- 
oat the system, and yellowness of the mucous membranes follows. 
Jaundice may also exist during the presence of simple constipation, 
hepatitis, biliary calculi, abscesses, hardening of the liver, etc. 

Treatment — When jaundice exists we must endeavor to rid the sys- 
tem of the excess of bile, and this is best accomplished by giving pur- 
gatives that act upon the liver. Calomel, 2 drams, with aloes, 7 drams, 
should be given. Glauber salts in handful doses once or twice a day 
for a week is also effective. May-apple, rhubarb, castor oil, and other 
cathartics that act upon the first or small bowels, may be selected. 
We must be careful to see that the bowels are kept open by avoiding 
hard, dry, bulky foods. 

Rupture of the liver. — This is known to occur at times in the horse, 
most frequently in old, fat horses and those that get but little exercise. 
Horses that have suffered from chronic liver disease for years eventually 
present symptoms of colic and die quite suddenly. Upon post-mortem 
examination we discover that the liver had ruptured. The cicatrices 
or scars that are often found upon the liver lead me to think that that 
organ may suffer small rupture and yet the horse recover from it. This 
result can not obtain, however, if the rent or tear is extensive, since in 
such cases death must quickly follow from hemorrhage, or, later, from 
peritonitis. Enlarged liver is particularly liable to rupture, and it is 
not surprising that, when we read of this organ weighing 55 to GO pounds, 
this accident occurs. The immediate causes of rupture appear to 
be excessive muscular exertion, sudden distention of the abdomen with 
gas, or some accident, as falling or being kicked by another horse. 

The symptoms of rupture will depend upon the extent of the lacera- 
tion. If slight there will be simply the symptoms of abdominal pain, 
looking back to the sides, lying down, etc.; if extensive the horse is 
dull and dejected, has no appetite, breathing becomes short and catch- 
ing, he sighs or sobs, visible mucous membranes are pale, extremities 
cold, pulse fast, small, and weak or running down. Countenance now 
shows much distress, he sweats profusely, totters in his gait, props his 
legs wide apart, reels, staggers, and falls. He may get up again, but 
soon falls dead. The rapid running-down pulse, paleness of the eyes, 



58 

nose, and mouth, sighing, stertorous breathing, tottering gait, etc., are 
the symptoms by which we know that the animal is dying from inter- 
nal hemorrhage. 

Treatment. — But little can be done. Opium in powder, in doses of 2 
drams every two or three hours, may be given, with the idea of pre- 
venting as much as possible all movements of internal organs. If we 
have reason to suspect internal bleeding we should give large and fre- 
quent doses of white-oak bark tea, dram doses of tannic or gallic 
acid, or the same quantity of sugar of lead, every half hour or hour. 
Fluid extract of ergot or tincture of the chloride of iron, in ounce doses, 
may be selected. Cold water dashed upon the right side or injected 
into the rectum is highly spoken of as a means of checking the hem- 
orrhage. 

Biliary calculi. — Gallstones. — These are rarely found in the horse, but 
may occupy the hepatic ducts, giving rise to jaundice and to colicky 
pains. There are no absolutely diagnostic symptoms, but should we 
find a horse that suffers from repeated attacks of colic, accompanied by 
symptoms of violent pain, and that during or following these attacks 
the animal is jaundiced, we may hazard the conjecture that gall-stones 
are present. There is little or nothing to be done except to give medi- 
cines to overcome pain, trusting that these concretions may pass on to 
the bowels, where, from their small size, they will not occasion any in- 
convenience. 

Diseases of the pancreas and spleen are so rare, or their symptoms 
so little understood, that it is impossible to write anything concerning 
either of these organs and their simple diseases that will convey to the 
reader information from a worthy stand-point, *. e., that of experience 
and observation. It is sometimes well, even for the veterinarian, to 
know that he does not know. This knowledge has saved my readers 
an infliction. 








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DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 



By JAMES LAW, F. R. C. V. S., 

Professor of Veterinary Science, etc., in Cornell University. 



The urinary organs constitute the main channel through which are 
excreted the nitrogenous or albuminoid principles, whether derived di- 
rectly from the food or from the muscular and other nitrogenized tissues 
of the body. They constitute, besides, the channel through which are 
thrown out most of the poisons, whether taken in by the mouth or skin 
or developed in connection with faulty or natural digestion, blood- 
forming, nutrition, or tissue destruction; or, finally, poisons that are 
developed within the body as the result of normal cell-life or of the life 
of bacteria or other germs that have entered the body from without. To 
a large extent, therefore, these organs are the sanitary scavengers and 
purifiers of the system, and when their functions are impaired or ar- 
rested the retained poisons quickly show their presence in resulting 
disorders of the skin and connective tissue beneath it, of the nervous 
system, or other organs. Nor is this influence one-sided. Scarcely an 
important organ of the body can suffer derangement without entailing 
a corresponding disorder of the urinary system. Nothing can be more 
striking than the mutual balance maintained between the liquid secre- 
tions of the skin and kidneys during hot and cold weather. In sum- 
mer, when so much liquid exhales through the skin as sweat, compar- 
atively little urine is passed, whereas in winter, when the skin is inact- 
ive, the urine is correspondingly increased. This vicarious action of 
skin and kidneys is usually kept within the limits of health, but at 
times the draining off of the water by the skin leaves too little to keep 
the solids of the urine safely in solution, and these are liable to crys- 
tallize out and form stone and gravel. Similarly the passage in the 
sweat of some of the solids that normally leave the body, dissolved in 
the urine, serves to irritate the skin and produce troublesome eruptions. 
A disordered liver contributes to the production, under different cir- 
cumstances, of an excess of biliary coloring-matter, which stains the 
urine ; of an excess of hippuric acid and allied products, which, being 
less soluble than urea (the normal product of tissue change), favor the 
formation of stone, of taurocholic acid, and other bodies that tend, when 

59 



60 

in excess, to destroy the blood globules and to cause irritation of the 
kidneys by the resulting haemoglobin excreted in the urine, and of 
glycogen too abundant to be burned up in the system, which in- 
duces saccharine urine (diabetes). Any disorder leading to impaired 
functional activity of the lungs is causative of an excess of hippuric 
acid and allied bodies, of oxalic acid, of sugar, etc., in the urine, which 
irritate the kidneys even if they do not produce solid deposits in the 
urinary passages. Diseases of the nervous system, and notably of the 
base of the brain and of the spinal cord, induce various urinary dis- 
orders, prominent among which are diabetes, chylous urine, and al- 
buminuria. Certain affections, with imperfect nutrition or destructive 
waste of the bony tissues, tend to charge the urine with phosphates of 
lime and magnesia, and endanger the formation of stone and gravel. 
In all extensive inflammations and acute fevers the liquids of the urine 
are diminished, while the solids (waste products), which should form 
the urinary secretion, are increased, and the surcharged urine proves 
irritant to the urinary organs or the retained waste products poison 
the system at large. 

Diseases of the heart and lungs, by interfering with the free onward 
flow of the blood from the right side of the heart, tend to throw that 
liquid back on the veins, and this backward pressure of venous blood 
strongly tends to disorders of the kidneys. Certain poisons taken with 
the food and water, notably that found in magnesian limestone and 
those found in irritant diuretic plants, are especially injurious to the 
kidneys, as are also various cryptogams, whether present in musty hay 
or oats. The kidneys may be irritated by feeding green vegetables 
covered with hoar-frost or by furnishing an excess of food rich in phos- 
phates (wheat bran, beans, pease, vetches, lentils, rape- cake, cotton-seed 
cake) or by a privation of water which entails a concentrated condition 
and high density of the urine. Exposure in cold rain or snow storms, 
cold draughts of air, and damp beds are liable to further disorder an 
already overworked or irritable kidney. Finally, sprains of the back 
and loins may cause bleeding from the kidneys or inflammation. 

The right kidney, weighing 23£ ounces, is shaped like a French bean, 
and extends from the loins forward to beneath the heads of the last two 
ribs. The left kidney (Plate IV), resembles a heart of cards, and extends 
from the loins forward beneath the head of the last rib only. Each con- 
sists of three distinct parts, (a) the external (cortical) or vascular part, in 
which the blood-vessels form elaborate capillary networks within the 
dilated globular sacs which form the beginnings of the secreting 
(uriniferous) tubes and on the surface of the sinuous secreting tubes 
leading from the sacs inward toward the second or medullary part of 
the organ; (b) the internal (medullary) part, made up in the main of 
blood-vessels, lymphatics, and nerves extending between the notch on 
the inner border of the kidney to and from the outer vascular portion, 
in which the secretion of urine is almost exclusively carried on ; and 



61 

(d) a large saccular reservoir in the center of the kidney into which all 
uriniferous tubes pour their secretions and from which the urine is 
carried away through a tube g, (ureter), which passes out of the notch at 
the inner border of the kidney and which opens by a valve-closed orifice 
into the roof of the bladder just in front of its neck. The bladder is a 
dilatable reservoir for the retention of the urine until the discomfort of 
its presence causes its voluntary discharge. Jt is kept closed by cir- 
cular muscular fibers surrounding its neck or orifice, and is emptied by 
looped muscular fibers extending in all directions forward from the 
neck around the blind anterior end of the sac. From the bladder the 
urine escapes through a dilatable tube (urethra) which extends from 
the neck of the bladder backward on the floor of the pelvis, and in the 
male through the penis to its free end, where it opens through a pink 
conical papilla. In the mare the urethra is not more than an inch in 
length, and is surrounded by the circular muscular fibers closing the 
neck of the bladder. Its opening may be found directly in the median 
line of the floor of the vulva, about 4£ inches from its external opening. 

General symptoms. — These apply especially to acute inflammations 
and the irritation caused by stone. The animal moves stiffly on the 
hind limbs, straddles, and makes frequent attempts to pass urine, which 
may be in excess, deficient in amount, liable to sudden arrest in spite 
of the straining, passed in driblets, or entirely suppressed. Again, it 
may be modified in density or constituents. Difficulty in making a 
sharp turn, or in lying down and rising with or without groaning, drop- 
ping the back when mounted or when pinched on the loins is suggest- 
ive of kidney disease, and so to a less extent are swelled legs, dropsy, 
and diseases of the skin and nervous system. The oiled hand intro- 
duced through the rectum may feel the bladder beneath and detect any 
over-distension, swelling, tenderness, or stone. In ponies the kidneys 
even may be reached. 

Examination of the urine. — In some cases the changes in the urine 
are the sole sign of disease. In health the horse's urine is of a deep 
amber color and has a strong odor. On a feed of grain and hay it may 
show a uniform transparency, while on a green ration there is an 
abundant white deposit of carbonate of lime. Of its morbid changes 
the following are to be looked for: (1) Color: White from deposited 
salts of lime ; brown or red from blood clots or coloring matter ; yellow 
or orange from bile or blood-pigment; pale from excess of water, or 
variou sly colored from vegetable ingredients (santonin makes it red, 
rhubarb or senna, brown ; tar or carbolic acid, green). (2) Density : 
The horse's urine may be 1.030 to 1.050, but it may greatly exceed this 
in diabetes and may sink to 1.007 in diuresis. (3) Chemical re-action, 
as ascertained by blue litmus or red test papers. The horse on vege- 
table diet has alkaline urine turning red test papers blue, while in the 
sucking-colt and the horse fed on flesh or on his own tissues (in star- 
vation or abstinence during disease) it is acid, turning blue litmus red. 



62 

(4) Organic constituents, as when glairy from albumen coagulable by 
strong nitric acid and boiling, when charged with microscopic casts of 
the uriniferous tubes, with the eggs or bodies of worms, with sugar, 
blood, or bile. (5) In its salts, which may crystalize out spontaueously, 
or on boiling, or on the addition of chemical re-agents. 

Albuminous urine in the horse is usually glairy, so that it may be 
drawn out in threads, but its presence can always be tested as follows: 
If the liquid is opaque, it may be first passed through filter paper; if 
very dense and already precipitating its salts, it may be diluted with 
distilled water ; add to the suspected liquid acetic acid drop by drop 
until it reddens blue litmus paper; then boil gently in a test tube; 
if a precipitate is thrown down, set the tube aside to cool and then add 
strong nitric acid. If the precipitate is not dissolved it is albumen; if 
dissolved it was probably urate or hippurate of ammonia. Albumen is 
normally present in advanced gestation; abnormally it is seen in dis- 
eases in which there occurs destruction of blood globules (anthrax, low 
fevers, watery states of the blood, dropsies), in diseases of the heart 
and liver which prevent the free escape of blood from the veins and 
throw back venous pressure on the kidneys, in inflammation of the 
lungs and pleural, and even tympany (bloating), doubtless from the 
same cause, and in all congestive or inflammatory diseases of the kid 
neys, acute or chronic. 

Casts of the uriniferous tubes can only be seen by placing the sus- 
pected urine under the microscope. They are usually very elastic and 
mobile, waving about in the liquid when the cover-glass is touched, and 
showing a uniform clear transparency (waxy) or entangled circular 
epithelial cells or opaque granules or flattened red blood globules or 
clear refraugent oil globules. They may be even densely opaque from 
crystals of earthy salts. 

Pus cells maybe found in the urine associated with albumen, and 
are recognized by clearing up, when treated with acetic acid, so that 
each cell shows two or three nuclei. 

DIURESIS — POLYURIA — DIABETES INSIPIDUS— EXCESSIVE SECRETION 

OF URINE. 

This consists in an excessive secretion of a clear, watery urine of a 
low specific gravity (1.007) with a correspondingly ardent thirst, a rap- 
idly advancing emaciation, and great loss of strength and spirit. 

Its causes may be any agent, medicinal, alimentary, or poisonous, 
which unduly stimulates the kidneys ; the reckless administration of 
diuretics, which form such a common constituent of quack horse-powders; 
acrid diuretic plants in grass or hay; new oats still imperfectly cured; 
an excess of roots or other very watery food ; a full allowance of salt to 
animals that have become inordinately fond of it ; but, above all, feeding 
on hay, grain, or bran which has not been properly dried and has be- 
come musty and permeated by fungi. Thushay, straw, or oats secured 



63 . 

in wet seasons and heating in the rick or stack is especially injurious. 
Hence this malady, like coma somnolentum (sleepy staggers), is wide- 
spread in wet seasons, and especially in rainy districts. 

Symptoms. — The horse drinks deep at every opportunity and passes 
urine on every occasion when stopped, the discharge being pale, watery, 
of a low density, and inodorous; in short, it contains a great excess of 
water and a deficiency of the solid excretions. So great is the quantity 
passed, however, that the small amount of solids in any given specimen 
amounts in twenty-four hours to far more than the normal, a fact in 
keeping with the rapid wasting of the tissues and extreme emaciation. 
The flanks become tucked up, the fat disappears, the bones and muscles 
stand out prominently, the skin becomes tense and hidebound, and the 
hair erect, scurfy, and deficient in luster. The eye becomes dull and 
sunken, the spirits are depressed, the animal is weak and sluggish, 
sweats on the slightest exertion, and can endure little. The subject 
may survive for months, or he may die early of exhaustion. In the 
slighter cases, or when the cause ceases to operate, he may make a 
somewhat tardy recovery. 

Treatment. — This consists in stopping the ingestion of the faulty 
drugs, poisons or food, and supplying sound hay and grain free from all 
taint of heating or mustiness. A liberal supply of boiled flaxseed 
in the drinking water at once serves to eliminate the poison and to sheath 
and protect the irritated kidneys. Tonics like sulphate or phosphate 
of iron (2 drams morniDg and evening) and powdered gentian or 
Peruvian bark (4 drams) help greatly by bracing the system and hasten- 
ing repair. To these maybe added agents calculated to destroy the fun- 
gus and eliminate its poisonous products. In that form which depends 
on musty food nothing acts better than large doses of iodide of potas- 
sium (2 drams), while in other cases creosote, carbolic acid (1 dram), 
or oil of turpentine (4 drams) properly diluted, may be resorted to. 

SACCHARINE DIABETES — DIABETES MELLITUS — GLYCOSURIA — INOSU- 

RIA. 

This is primarily a disease of the nervous system or liver rather than 
of the kidneys, yet, as the most prominent symptom is the sweet urine, 
it may be treated here. Its causes are varied, but resolve themselves 
largely into disorder of the liver or disorder of the brain. One of the 
most prominent functions of the liver is the formation of glycogen, a 
principle allied to grape-sugar, and passing into it by further oxidation 
in the blood. This is a constant function of the liver, but in health the 
resulting sugar is burned up in the circulation and does not appear in 
the urine. On the contrary, when the supply of oxygen is defective, as 
in certain diseases of the lungs, the whole of the sugar does not undergo 
combustion and the excess is excreted by the kidneys. Also in certain 
forms of enlarged liver the amount of sugar produced is more than can 
be disposed of in the natural way, and it appears in the urine. A tern- 



64 

porary sweetness of the urine often occurs after a bearty meal on 
starchy food, but this is due altogether to the superabundant supply of 
the sugar-forming food, lasts for a few hours only, and has no patho- 
logical significance. In many cases of fatal glycosuria the liver is 
found to be enlarged, or at least congested, and it is found that the dis- 
order can be produced experimentally by agencies which produce an 
increased circulation through the liver. Thus Bernard produced gly- 
cosuria by pricking the oblong medulla at the base of the brain close 
to the roots of the pneumogastric nerve, which happens to be also the 
nerve center (vaso-motor) which presides over the contractions of the 
minute blood-vessels. The pricking and irritation of this center leads 
to congestion of the liver and the excessive production of sugar. Irri- 
tation carried to this point through the pneumogastric nerve causes 
saccharine urine, and, in keeping with this, disease of the pancreas has 
been found in this malady, the irritation being conveyed thence to the 
brain through the pneumogastric nerve and reflected to the liver through 
the vasomotor nerves. The same result follows the reflection of irrita- 
tion from other sources, as from different ganglia (corpora striata, optic 
thalami, pons, cerebellum, cerebrum) of the brain. Similarly it is induced 
by interruption of the nervous control along the vaso motor tracts, as 
in destruction of the upper or lower cervical sympathetic ganglion, by 
cutting the nervous branch connecting these two, in injury to the spinal 
marrow in the iuterval between the brain and the second or fourth dorsal 
vertebra, or in disease of the cceliac plexus, which directly presides 
over the liver. Certain chemical poisons also cause saccharine urine, 
notably woorara, strychnia, morphia, phosphoric acid, alcohol, ether, 
chloroform, quinia, ammonia, and arsenic. 

The symptoms are ardent thirst and profuse secretion of a pale urine 
of a high density (1.060 and upward), rapid loss of condition, scurfy, un- 
thrifty skin, costiveness or irregularity of the bowels, indigestion, and 
the presence in the urine of a sweet principle, grape-sugar or inosite, or 
both. This may be most promptly detected by touching the tip of the 
tongue with a drop. Sugar may be detected simply by adding a tea- 
spoonful of liquid yeast to 4 ounces of the urine and keeping it lightly 
stopped at a temperature of 70° to 80° F., for twelve hours, when 
the sugar will be found to have been changed into alcohol and carbon 
dioxide. The loss of density will give indication of the amount of sugar 
transformed j thus a density of 1.035 in a urine which was formerly 1.060 
would indicate about 15 grains of sugar to the fluid ounce. 

Inosite or muscle-sugar, frequently present in the horse's urine, and 
even replacing the glucose, is not fermentable. Its presence may be 
indicated by its sweetness and the absence of fermentation, or by Gal- 
lois' test. Evaporate the suspected urine at a gentle heat almost to 
dryness, then add a drop of a solution of mercuric nitrate and evapo- 
rate carefully to dryness, when a yellowish residue is left that is changed 
on further cautious heating to a deep rose- color, which disappears ou 
cooling and re-appears on heating. 



65 

In advanced diabetes, dropsies in the limbs and under the chest and 
belly, puffy, swollen eyelids, cataracts, catarrhal inflammation of the 
lungs, weak, uncertain gait, and drowsiness may be noted. 

Treatment is most satisfactory in cases dependent on some curable 
disease of liver, pancreas, lungs, or brain. Thus, in liver disease, a run 
at pasture in warm weather, or in winter a warm, sunny, well-aired 
stable, with sufficient clothing and laxatives (sulphate of soda, 1 ounce 
daily) and alkalies (carbonate of potassium, one-fourth ounce) may ben- 
efit. To this may be added mild blistering, cupping, or even leeching 
over the last ribs. Diseases of the brain or pancreas may be treated 
according to their indications. The diet should be mainly albuminous, 
such as wheat-bran or middlings, pease, beans, vetches, and milk. In- 
deed, an exclusive milk diet is one of the very best remedial agencies. 
It may be given as skim milk or butter-milk, and in the last case com- 
bines an anti-diabetic remedy in the lactic acid. Under such an exclu- 
sive diet recent and mild cases are often entirely restored, though at 
the expense of an attack of rheumatism. Codeia, one of the alkaloids 
of opium, is strongly recommended by Dr. Tyson. The dose for the 
horse would be 3 grains thrice daily. In cases in which there is mani- 
fest irritation of the braiu bromide of potassium, 4 drams, or ergot, one- 
half ounce, may be resorted to. Salicylic acid and salicylate of sodium 
have proved useful in certain cases ; also phosphate of sodium. Bitter 
tonics (especially nux vomica, one-half dram) are useful in improving 
the digestion and general health. 

BLOODY URINE — HEMATURIA. 

As seen in the horse bloody urine is usually the direct result of me- 
chanical injuries, as sprains and fractures of the loins, lacerations of 
the sub-lumbar muscles (psoas), irritation caused by stone in the kid- 
ney, ureter, bladder, or urethra. It may, however, occur with acute 
congestion of the kidney, with tumors in its substance, or with papil- 
loma or other diseased growth in the bladder. Acrid diuretic plants 
present in the food may also lead to the escape of blood from the 
kidney. The predisposition to this affection is, however, incomparably 
less than in the case of the ox or sheep, the difference being attributed 
to the greater plasticity of the horse's blood in connection with the 
larger quantity of fibrine. 

The blood may be present in small clots or in more or less intimate 
admixture with the urine. Its condition may furnish some indication 
as to its source; thus, if from the kidneys it is more likely to-be uni- 
formly diffused through the urine, while as furnished by the bladder or 
passages clots are more likely to be present. Again, in bleeding from 
the kidney, minute cylindrical clots inclosing blood globules and formed 
in the uriniferous tubes can be detected under the microscope. Precis- 
ion also may be approximated by observing whether there is coexisting 
fracture, sprain of the loins, stone or tumor in the bladder or urethra. 
11035 5 



66 

The disease being mainly due to direct injury, treatment will consist 
first in removing such cause whenever possible, and then in applying 
general and local styptics. Irritants in food must be avoided, sprains 
appropriately treated, and stone in bladder or urethra removed. Then 
give mucilaginous drinks (slippery elm, linseed tea) freely, and styptics 
(tincture of chloride of iron, 3 drams; acetate of lead, one-half dram ; 
tannic acid, one-half dram; or oil of turpentine, 1 ounce). If the dis- 
charge is abundant apply cold water to the loins and keep the animal 
perfectly still. 

HEMOGLOBINURIA — AZOTURIA — AZOTAEMIA — POISONING BY ALBU- 
MINOIDS. 

Like diabetes, this is rather a disease of the liver and blood-forming 
functions than of the kidney, but as prominent symptoms are loss of 
control over the hind limbs and the passage of ropy and dark-colored 
urine, the vulgar idea is that it is a disorder of the uriuary organs. It 
is a complex affection directly connected with a plethora in the blood of 
nitrogenized constituents, with extreme nervous and muscular disorder 
and the excretion of a dense reddish or brownish urine. It is directly 
connected with high feeding, especially on highly nitrogenized food 
(oats, beans, pease, vetches, cotton-seed meal), and with a period of idle- 
ness in the stall under full rations. The disease is never seen at pas- 
ture, rarely under constant daily work, even though the feeding be high, 
and the attack is usually precipitated by taking the horse from the 
stable and subjecting it to exercise or work. The poisoning is not pres- 
ent when taken from the stable, as the horse is likely to be noticeably 
lively and spirited, but he will usually succumb under the first hundred 
yards or half mile of exercise. It seems as if the aspiratory power of 
the chest under the sudden exertion and accelerated breathing speedily 
drew from the gorged liver and abdominal veins (portal) the accumu- 
lated store of nitrogenous matter in an imperfectly oxidized or elabo- 
rated condition, and as if the blood, surcharged with these materials, 
was unable to maintain the healthy functions of the nerve centers and 
muscles. A peculiar anatomical feature of the horse's liver doubtless 
contributes to this, namely, the persistence, throughout life, of several 
considerable veins leadiug directly from the veins of the stomach and 
intestines (portal veins) into the posterior vena cava and heart. 

This condition, common to foetal mammals, persists through life in 
the solipeds only, among our domestic animals. In all others the portal 
vein has no communication with the vena cava except through the 
capillaries of the liver. With the direct channel the rich, crude blood 
coming from the intestines is drawn at once into the general circulation 
unchanged by the secretion iu the liver and the chemical changes 
therein effected. Hence this disease is peculiar to solipeds. It has been 
noticed rather more frequently in mares than horses, attributable, per- 
haps, to the nervous excitement attendant on heat and to the fact that 



67 

the unmutilated mare is naturally more excitable than the docile geld- 
ing. 

Symptoms. — In the milder forms this affection may appear as a lame- 
ness in one limb, from indefinite cause, succeeding to some sudden ex- 
ertion and attended by a dusky-brown color of the membranes of the 
eye and nose and some wincing when the last ribs are struck. The 
severe forms come on after one or two days of rest on a full ration, when 
the animal has been taken out and driven one hundred paces or more. 
The fire and life with which he had left the stable suddenly give place 
to dullness and oppression, as shown in heaving flanks, dilated nostrils, 
pinched face, perspiring skin, and trembling body. The muscles of the 
loins or haunch become swelled and rigid, the subject moves stiffly or 
unsteadity, crouches behind, the limbs being carried semi-flexed, and he 
soon drops, unable to support himself. When down, the body and limbs 
are moved convulsively, but there is no power of coordination of move- 
ment in the muscles. The pulse and breathing are accelerated, the 
eyes red with a tinge of brown, and the urine, if passed, is seen to be 
highly colored, dark brown, red, or black, but it contains neither blood 
clots nor globules. The color is mainly due to haemoglobin and other 
imperfectly elaborated constituents of the blood. 

It may end fatally in a few hours or days, or a recovery may ensue, 
which is usually more speedy and perfect if it has set in at an early 
stage. In the late and tardy recoveries a partial paralysis of the hind 
limbs may last for months. A frequent sequel of these tardy cases is 
an extensive wasting of the muscles leading up from the front of the 
stifle (those supplied by the crural nerve), and a complete inability to 
stand. 

The prevention of this serious affection lies in restricting the diet and 
giving daily exercise when the animal is not at work. A horse that 
has had one attack should never be left idle for a single day in the stall 
or barn-yard. When a horse has been condemned to absolute repose 
on good feeding he may have a laxative (one half to 1 pound Glauber 
salts), and have graduated exercise, beginning with a short walk and 
increasing day by day. 

The treatment of the mild cases may consist in a laxative, graduated 
daily exercise, and a daily dose of saltpeter (1 ounce). Sudden attacks 
will sometimes promptly subside if taken on the instant and the sub- 
ject kept still and calmed by a dose of bromide of potassium (4 
drams) and sweet spirits of niter (1 ounce). The latter has the advan- 
tage of increasing the secretion of the kidneys. In severe cases, as 
a rule, it is desirable to begin treatment by a full dose of aloes (4 to 6 
drams) with the above-named dose of bromide of potassium, and this 
latter may be continued at intervals of four or six hours, as may be 
requisite to calm the nervous excitement. Fomentations with warm 
water over the loins are always useful in calming the excitable condi- 
tion of the spinal cord, muscles, liver, and kidneys, and also in favor- 



68 

ing secretion from the two latter. On the second day diuretics may be 
resorted to. such as saltpeter, oue-half ounce, and powdered colchicum, 
one-half dram, to be repeated twice daily. A laxative may be re- 
peated in three or four days should the bowels seem to demand it, and 
as the uervous excitement disappears any remaining muscular weak- 
ness or paralysis may be treated by one-half dram doses of nux vomica 
twice a day and a stimulating liniment (aqua ammonia and sweet-oil 
in equal proportions) rubbed on the torpid muscles. 

During the course of the disease friction to the limbs is useful, and 
in the advanced paralytic stage the application of electricity along the 
line of the affected muscles. When the patient can not stand he must 
have a thick, soft bed, and should be turned from side to side at least 
every twelve hours. As soon as he can be made to stand he may be 
helped up and even supported in a slmg. 

ACUTE INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS— ACUTE NEPHRITIS. 

Inflammations of the kidneys have been differentiated widely, accord- 
ing as they were acute or chronic, parenchymatous or tubal, suppurative 
or not, with increased or shrunken kidney, etc., but in a work like the 
present, utility will be consulted by classing all under acute or chronic 
inflammation. 

The causes of inflammation of the kidneys are extremely varied. Con- 
gestion occurs from the altered and irritant products passed through 
these organs during recovery from inflammations of other organs and 
during fevers. This may last only during the existence of its cause, or 
may persist and become aggravated. Heart disease, throwing the blood 
pressure back on the veins and kidneys, is another cause. Disease of 
the ureter or bladder, preventing the escape of urine from the kidney 
and causiug increased fullness and tension in its pelvis and tubes, will 
determine inflammation. Decomposition of the detaiued urine in such 
cases, and the production of ammonia and other irritants, must also be 
named. The advance of bacteria upward from the bladder to the kid- 
ney is another cause. The consumption in hay or other fodder of acrid 
or irritant plants, including fungi, the absorption of cantharidiue from 
a surface blistered by Spanish flies, the reckless administration of diu- 
retics, the presence of stones in the kidney, exposure of the surface to 
cold and wet, aud the infliction of blows or sprains on the loins, may 
contribute to its production. Liver disorders which throw on the kid- 
neys the work of excreting irritant products, diseases of the lungs aud 
heart from which clots are carried, to be arrested in the small blood- 
vessels of the kidney, and injuries and paralysis of the spinal cord, are 
additional causes. 

The symptoms are more or less fever, manifest stiffness of the back and 
straddling gait with the hind limbs, difficulty in lying down and rising, 
or in walking in a circle, the animal sometimes groaning under the effort, 
arching of the loins and tucking up of the flank, looking back at the 



69 

abdomen as if from colicky pain, and tenderness of the loins to pinch- 
ing, especially jusb beneath the bony processes 6 inches to one side of 
the median line. Urine is passed frequently, a small quantity at a time, 
of a high color, and sometimes mixed with blood or even pus. Under 
the microscope it shows the microscopic casts referred to under general 
symptoms. If treated by acetic acid, boiling, and subsequent addition 
of strong nitric acid, the resulting and persistent precipitate indicates 
the amount of albumen. The legs tend to swell from the foot up, also 
the dependent parts beneath the belly, and chest, and effusions of liquid 
may occur within the chest or abdomen. In the male animal the alter- 
nate drawing up and relaxation of the testicles in the scrotum are sug- 
gestive, and in small horses the oiled hand introduced into the rectum 
may reach the kidney and ascertain its sensitiveness. 

Treatment demands, first, the removal of any recognized cause. Then, 
if the suffering and fever are high, 2 to 4 quarts of blood may be ab- 
stracted from the jugular vein ; in w T eak subjects or unless in high fever 
this should be omitted. Next relieve the kidneys as far as possible by 
throwing their work on the bowels and skin. A pint of castor oil is 
less likely than either aloes or salts to act on the kidneys. To affect 
the skin a warm stall and heavy clothing may be supplemented by 
dram doses of Dover's powder. Boiled flaxseed may be added to the 
drinking water, and also thrown into the rectum as an injection, and 
blankets saturated with hot water should be persistently applied to the 
loins. This may be followed by a very thin pulp of the best ground 
mustard made with tepid water, rubbed in against the direction of the 
hair, and covered up with paper and a blauket. This may be kept on 
for an hour, or until the skin thickens and the hair stands erect. It 
may then be rubbed or sponged off and the blanket re-applied. When 
the action of the bowels has been started it may be kept up by a daily 
dose of 2 or 3 ounces of Glauber salts. 

During recovery a course of bitter tonics (nux vomica 1 scruple, 
ground gentian root 4 drams), should be given. The patient should 
also be guarded against cold, wet, and any active exertion for some 
time after all active symptoms have subsided. 

CHRONIC INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS. 

Chronic inflammation of the kidneys is more commonly associated 
with albumen and casts in the urine than the acute form, and in some- 
instances these conditions of the urine may be the only prominent 
symptoms of the disease. Though it may supervene on blows, injuries, 
and exposures, it is much more commonly connected with faulty con- 
ditions of the system — as indigestion, heart disease, lung or liver dis- 
ease, imperfect blood formation or assimilation. In short, it is rather 
the attendant on a constitutional infirmity than on a simple local injury. 

It may be associated with various forms of diseased kidney, as shrink- 
age (atrophy), increase (hypertrophy), softening, red congestion, white 



70 

enlargement, etc., so that it forms a group of diseases rather than a 
disease by itself. 

The symptoms may include stiffness, weakness, and increased sensi- 
bility of the loins, and modified secretion of urine (increase or sup- 
pression), or the flow maybe natural. Usually it contains albumen, 
the amount furnishing a fair criterion of the gravity of the affection, 
and microscopic casts, also most abundant in bad cases. Dropsy, 
manifested in swelled legs, is a significant symptom, and if the effusion 
takes place along the lower line of .the body, or in chest or abdomen, 
the significance is increased. A scurfy, unthrifty skin, lack-luster hair, 
inability to sustain severe or continued exertion, poor or irregular ap- 
petite, loss of fat and flesh, softness of the muscles, and pallor of the 
eyes and nose are equally suggestive. So are skin eruptions of various 
kinds. Any one or more of these symptoms would warrant an examina- 
tion of the urine for albumen and casts, the finding of which signifies 
renal inflammation. 

Treatment of these cases is not always satisfactory, as the cause is 
liable to be maintained in the disorders of important organs elsewhere. 
If any such coincident disease of another organ or function can be de- 
tected, that should be treated first or simultaneously with this affection 
of the kidneys. In all cases the building up of the general health is 
important. Hence a course of tonics may be given (phosphate of iron, 
2 drams; nux vomica, 20 grains; powdered gentian root, 4 drams, 
daily), or GO drops of sulphuric acid or nitro-muriatic acid may be 
given daily in the drinking water. If there is any elevated temperature 
of the body and tenderness of the loins, fomentations may be applied, 
followed by a mustard pulp as for acute inflammation, and even in the 
absence of these indications the mustard may be resorted to with ad- 
vantage at intervals of a few days. In suppression of urine, fomenta- 
tions with warm water or with infusion of digitalis leaves is a safer 
resort than diuretics, and cupping over the loins may also benefit. To 
apply a cup shave the skin and oil it; then take a narrow- mouthed 
glass, rarify the air within it by introducing a taper in full flame for a 
second, withdraw the taper and instantly apply the mouth of the glass 
to the skin and hold it closely applied till the cooling tends to form a 
vacuum in the glass and to draw up the skin, like a sucker. 

As in the acute inflammation, every attention must be given to secure 
warm clothing, a warm stall, and pure air. 

TUMORS OF THE KIDNEYS — PARASITES. 

Tumors, whether malignant or simple, would give rise to symptoms 
resembling some form of inflammation, and are not likely to be recog- 
nized during life. To parasites of the kidney belong the echinococcus, 
the larval or bladder- worm stage of the small echinococcus tape-worm 
of the dog; also the Gysticercus fistularis, another bladder-worm of an 
unknown tape-worm; but in these there is the possibility of the pas- 



71 

sage with the urine of a detached head of the bladder-worm or of some 
of its microscopic booklets, which might be found in the sediment of 
the urine. So with Strongylus gigas (giant strongle), the largest of round 
worms, which has been found in the kidney of the horse, and the pres- 
ence of which could only be certified by the passage of its microscopic 
eggs or of the entire worm. 

SPASM OF THE NECK OF THE BLADDER. 

This affection consists in spasmodic closure of the outlet from the 
bladder by tonic contraction of the circular muscular fibers. It may be 
accompanied by a painful contraction of the muscles on the body of the 
bladder,- or if the organ is already unduly distended these will be affected 
with temporary paralysis. It is most frequent in the horse, but by no 
means unknown in the mare. 

The causes are usually hard and continuous driving without opportu- 
nity for passing urine, cold rain-storms, draughts of cold air when per- 
spiring and fatigued, the administration of Spanish fly or the applica- 
tion of extensive blisters of the same, abuse of diuretics, the presence 
of acrid diuretic plants in the fodder, and the presence of stone in the 
bladder. As most m ares refuse to urinate while in harness, they should 
be unhitched at suitable times for urination. Spasms of the bowels 
are always attended by spasm of the bladder, hence the free passage of 
water is usually a symptom of relief. 

The symptoms are frequent stretching and straining to urinate, with no 
result or a slight dribbling only. These vain efforts are attended by 
pain and groaning. On resuming his natural position the animal is 
not freed from the pain, but moves uneasily, paws, shakes the tail, 
kicks at the abdomen with his hind feet, looks back to the flank, lies 
down and rises, arches the back, and attempts to urinate as before. If 
the oiled hand is introduced into the rectum the greatly distended blad- 
der may be felt beneath, and the patient will often shrink when it is 
handled. 

It is important to notice that irritation of the urinary organs is often 
present in impaction of the colon with solid matters, because the im- 
pacted intestine under the straining of the patient is forced backward 
into the pelvis and presses upou and irritates the bladder. In such 
cases the horse stands with his fore limbs advanced and the hind ones 
stretched back beyond the natural posture, and makes frequent efforts 
to urinate witli varying success. Unpracticed. observers naturally con- 
clude that the secondary urinary trouble is the main and only one, and 
the intestinal impaction and obstruction is too often neglected until it 
is irremediable. In cases where the irritation has caused spasm of the 
neck of the bladder and overdistension of that organ, the mistake is 
still more easily made, hence it is important in all cases to examine for 
the impacted bowel, forming a bend or loop at the entrance of the pelvis 
and usually toward the left side. The impacted intestine feels soft and 



72 

doughy, and is easily indented with the knuckles, forming a marked 
contrast with the tense, elastic, resilient overdisteuded bladder. 

It remains to be noted that similar symptoms may be determined by 
a stone, or sebaceous mass, or stricture obstructing the urethra, or in 
the new-born by thickened mucus in that duct and the pressure of 
hardened impacted feces in the rectum. In obstruction, the hard im- 
pacted body can usually be felt by tracing the urethra along the lower 
and posterior surface of the penis and forward to the median line of 
the floor of the pelvis to the neck of the bladder. That part of the 
urethra between the seat of obstruction and the bladder is usually dis- 
tended with urine, and feels enlarged, elastic, and fluctuating. 

Treatment may be begun by taking the animal out of harness. This 
failing, spread clean litter beneath the belly or turn the patient out on 
the dung-heap. Some seek to establish sympathetic action by pouring 
water from one vessel into another with dribbling noise. Others soothe 
and distract the attention by slow whistling. Friction of the abdomen 
with wisps of straw may succeed, or it may be rubbed with ammonia 
and oil. These failing, an injection of 2 ounces of laudanum or of an 
infusion of 1 ounce of tobacco in water may be tried. In the mare the 
neck of the bladder is easily dilated by inserting two oiled fingers and 
slightly parting them. In the horse the oiled hand introduced into the 
rectum may press from before backward on the anterior or blind end of 
the bladder. Finally a well-oiled gum-elastic catheter may be entered 
into the urethra through the papilla at the end of the penis and pushed 
on carefully until it has entered the bladder. To effect this the penis 
must first be withdrawn from its sheath, and when the advancing end 
of the catheter has reached the bend of the urethra beneath the anus 
it must be guided forward by pressure with the hand, which guidance 
must be continued onward into the bladder, the oiled hand being intro- 
duced into the rectum for this purpose. The horse catheter, 3J feet 
long and one-third inch in diameter, may be bought of a surgical-instru- 
ment maker. 

PARALYSIS OE THE BLADDER. 

Paralysis of the body of the bladder with spasm of the neck has been 
described under the last heading, and may occur in the same way from 
overdistension in tetanus, acute rheumatism, paraplegia, and hemi- 
plegia, in which the animal can not stretch himself to stale, and in cys- 
titis, affecting the body of the bladder but not the neck. In all these 
cases the urine is suppressed. It also occurs as a result of disease of 
the posterior end of the spinal marrow and with broken back, and is 
then associated with palsy of the tail, and it may be of the hind limbs. 

The symptoms are a constant dribbling of urine when the neck is in- 
volved, the liquid running down the inside of the thighs and irritating 
the skin. When the neck is unaffected the urine is retained until the 
bladder is greatly overdistended, when it may be expelled in a gush 



73 

by the active contraction of the muscular walls of the abdomen ; but 
this never empties the bladder, and the oiled hand introduced through 
the rectum may feel the soft, flabby organ still half full of urine. This 
retained urine is liable to decompose and give off ammonia, which dis- 
solves the epithelial cells, exposing the raw mucous membrane, and 
causing the worst type of cystitis. Suppression and incontinence of 
urine are common also to obstruction of the urethra by stone or other- 
wise ; hence this source of fallacy should be excluded by manual ex- 
amination along the whole course of that duct. 

Treatment is only applicable in cases in which the determining cause 
can be abated. In remediable sprains of the back or disease of the 
spinal cord these must have appropriate treatment, and the urine must 
be drawn off frequently with a catheter to prevent overdistension and 
injury to the bladder. If the paralysis persists after recovery of the 
spinal cord, or if it continues after relief of spasm of the neck of the 
bladder, apply a pulp of mustard and water over the back part of the 
belly in front of the udder, and cover with a rug until the hair stands 
erect. In the male the mustard may be applied between the thighs 
from near the anus downward. Daily doses of 2 drams extract of 
belladonna, or of 2 grains powdered Spanish fly, may serve to rouse 
the lost tone. These failing, a mild current of electricity daily may 
succeed. 

INFLAMMATION OP THE ELADDEE — CYSTITIS — UEOCYSTITIS. 

Cystitis maybe slight or severe, acute or chronic, partial or general. 
It may be caused by abuse of diuretics, especially such as are irritating 
(cantharides, turpentine, copaiba, resin, etc.),' by the presence of a stone 
or gravel in the bladder, the irritation of a catheter or other foreign 
body introduced from without, the septic ferment (bacterium) intro- 
duced on a filthy catheter, the overdistension of the bladder by re- 
tained urine, the extrication of ammonia from retained decomposing 
urine, resulting in destruction of the epithelial cells and irritation of 
the raw surface, and a too-concentrated and irritating urine. The 
application of Spanish flies or turpentine over a too-extensive surface, 
sudden exposure of a perspiring and tired horse to cold or wet, and the 
presence of acrid plants in the fodder may cause cystitis, as they may 
nephritis. Finally, inflammation may extend from a diseased vagina 
or urethra to the bladder. 

The symptoms are slight or severe colicky pains ; the animal moves 
his hind feet uneasily or even kicks at the abdomen, looks around at 
his flank, and may even lie down and rise frequently. More char- 
acteristic are frequently repeated efforts to urinate, resulting in the 
discharge of a little clear, or red, or more commonly flocculent urine, 
always in jets, and accompanied by signs of pain, which persist after 
the discharge, as shown in continued straining, groaning, and perhaps 
in movements of the feet and tail. The penis hangs from the sheath, 



74 

or in tbe mare the vulva is frequently opened and closed, as after uri- 
nation. The animal winces when the abdomen is pressed in the region 
of the sheath or udder, and the bladder is found to be sensitive and 
tender when pressed with the oiled hand introduced through the rectum 
or vagina. In the mare the thickening of the walls of the bladder may 
be felt by introducing one finger through the urethra. The discharged 
urine, which may be turbid or even oily, contains an excess of mucus, 
with flat shreds of membrane, with scaly epithelial cells, and pus cor- 
puscles, each showing two or more nuclei when treated with acetic acid, 
but there are no microscopic tubular casts, as in nephritis. If due to 
stone in the bladder, that will be found on examination through rectum 
or vagina. 

Treatment implies, first, the removal of the cause, whether poisons in 
food or as medicine, the removal of Spanish flies or other blistering 
agents from the skin, or the extraction of stone or gravel. If the urine 
has been retained and decomposed it must be completely evacuated 
through a clean catheter, and the bladder thoroughly washed out with 
a solution of 1 dram of borax in a quart of water. This must be re- 
peated twice daily until the urine no longer decomposes, because as 
long as ammonia is developed in the bladder the protecting layer of 
epithelial cells will be dissolved and the surface kept raw and irrita- 
ble. The diet must be light (bran mashes, roots, fresh grass), and the 
drink impregnated with linseed tea, or solution of slippery-elm or 
marsh-mallow. The same agents may be used to inject into the rectum, 
or they may even be used along with borax, and opium to inject into 
bladder (gum arabic, 1 dram ; opium, 1 dram ; tepid water, 1 pint). 
Fomentations over the loins are often of great advantage, and these 
may be followed or alternated with the application of mustard, as in 
paralysis. Or the mustard may be applied on the back part of the ab- 
domen below, or between the thighs from the anus downward. Finally, 
when the acute symptoms have subsided, a daily dose of buchu 1 
dram, and nux vomica one-half dram, will serve to restore lost tone. 

IRRITABLE BLADDER. 

Some horses, and especially mares, show an irritability of the blad- 
der and nerve centers presiding over it by frequent urination in small 
quantities, though the urine is not manifestly changed in character 
and no more than the natural amount is passed in the twenty-four 
hours. The disorder appears to have its source quite as frequently in 
the generative or nervous system as in the urinary. A troublesome 
and dangerous form is seen in mares, which dash off and refuse all con- 
trol by the rein if driven with a full bladder, but usually prove docile 
if the bladder has been emptied before hitching. In other cases the 
excitement connected with getting the tail over the reins is a powerful 
determining cause. The condition is marked in many mares during 
the period of heat. 



75 

An oleaginous laxative (castor oil 1 pint) will serve to remove any 
cause of irritation in the digestive organs, and a careful dieting will 
avoid continued irritation by acrid vegetable agents. The bladder 
should be examined to see that there is no stone or other cause of irri- 
tation, and the sheath and penis should be washed with soapsuds, any 
sebaceous matter removed from the bilocular cavity at the end of the 
penis, and the whole lubricated with sweet oil. Irritable mares should 
be induced to urinate before they are harnessed, and those that clutch 
the lines under the tail may have the tail set high by cutting the cords 
on its lower surface, or it may be prevented getting over the reins by 
having a strap carried from its free end to the breeching. Those prov- 
ing troublesome when in heat may have 4-dram doses of bromide of 
potassium, or they may be served by the male or castrated. Sometimes 
irritability may be lessened by daily doses of belladonna extract (1 
dram), or a better tone may be given to the parts by balsam copaiba 
(1 dram). 

DISEASED GROWTHS IN THE BLADDER. 

These may be of various kinds, malignant or simple. In the horse I 
have found villous growths from the mucous membrane especially 
troublesome. They may be attached to the mucous membrane by a 
narrow neck or by a broad base covering a great part of the organ. 
The symptoms are frequent straining, passing of urine and blood with 
occasionally gravel. An examination of the bladder with the hand in 
the rectum will detect the new growth, which may be distinguished from 
a hard resistant stone. In mares, in which the finger can be inserted 
into the bladder, the recognition is still more satisfactory. The polypi 
attached by narrow necks may be removed by surgical operation, but 
for those with broad attachments treatment is eminently unsatisfac- 
tory. 

DISCHARGE OF URINE BY THE NAVEL — PERSISTENT URAOHUS. 

This occurs only in the new-born, and consists in the non-closure of 
the natural channel (urachus), through which the urine is discharged 
into the outer water- bag (allantois) in fcetal life. At that early stage 
of the animal existence the bladder resembles a long tube, which is pro- 
longed through the navel string and opens into the outermost of the 
two water-bags in which the foetus floats. In this way the urine is pre- 
vented from entering the inner water-bag (amnios), where it would 
mingle with the liquids, bathing the skin of the foetus and cause irrita- 
tion. At birth this channel closes up, and the urine takes the course 
normal to extra-uterine life. Imperfect closure is more frequent in 
males than in females, because of the greai length and small caliber of 
the male urethra and its consequent tendency to obstruction. In the 
female there may be a discharge of a few drops only at a time, while in 
the male the urine will be expelled in strong jets coincidently with the 
contractions of the bladder and walls of the abdomen. 



76 

The first care is to ascertain if the urethra is pervious by passing a 
human catheter. This determined, the open urachus may be firmly 
closed by a stout waxed thread, carried with a needle through the tis- 
sues back of the opening and tied in front of it so as to inclose as little 
skin as possible. If a portion of the navel string remains, the tying of 
that may be all sufficient. It is important to tie as early as possible so 
as to avoid inflammation of the navel from contact with the urine. In 
summer a little carbolic acid water or tar water may be applied to 
keep off the flies. 

EVERSION OF THE BLADDER. 

This can occur only in the female. It consists in the turning of the 
organ outside in through the channel of the urethra, so that it appears 
as a red, pear-shaped mass hanging from the floor of the vulva and pro- 
truding externally between its lips. It may be a mass like the fist, or 
it may swell up to the size of an infant's head. On examining its upper 
surface the orifices of the urethra may be seen, one on each side, a short 
distance behind the neck, with the urine oozing from them drop by 
drop. 

This displacement usually supervenes on a flaccid condition of the 
bladder, the result of paralysis, over distention, or severe compression 
during a difficult parturition. i 

The protrudiifg organ may be washed with a solution of 1 ounce of 
laudanum and a teaspoouful of carbolic acid in a quart of water, and 
returned by pressing a smooth, rounded object into the fundus and 
directing it into the urethra, while careful pressure is made on the sur- 
rounding parts with the other hand. If too large and resistant it may 
be wound tightly in a strip of bandage about two inches broad so as to 
express the great mass of blood, and exudate and diminish the bulk of 
the protruded organ so that it can be easily pushed back. This method 
has the additional advantage of protecting the organ against bruises 
and lacerations in the effort made to return it. After the return strain- 
ing may be kept in check by giving laudanum (1 to 2 ounces), and by 
applying a truss to press upon the lips of the vulva (see e version of the 
womb.) The patient should be kept in a stall a few inches lower in 
front than behind, so that the action of gravity will favor retention. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE URETHRA — URETHRITIS — GLEET. 

This affection belongs quite as much to the generative organs, yet it 
can not be entirely overlooked in a treatise on urinary disorders, it 
may be induced by the same causes as cystitis (which see), by the pas- 
sage and temporary arrest of small stones, or gravel, by the irritation 
caused by foreign bodies introduced from without, by blows on the 
penis by sticks, stones, or by the feet of a mare which kicks while being 
served, by an infecting inflammation contracted from a mare served in 



77 

the first few days after parturition, or oue suffering from ieucorrhcea- 
by infecting matter introduced on a dirty catheter, or by the extension 
of inflammation from an irritated bilocular cavity filled with hardened 
sebaceous matter, or from an uncleaused sheath. 

The symptoms are swelling, heat, and tenderness of the sheath and 
penis, difficulty, pain, and groaning in passing urine, which is liable to 
sudden temporary arrests in the course of a micturition, and later a 
whitish muco-purulent oozing from the papilla on the end of the penis. 
There is a tendency to erection of the penis, and in cases contracted 
from a mare the outer surface of that organ will show more or less ex- 
tensive sores and ulcers. Stallions suffering in this way will refuse to 
mount, or having mounted will fail to complete the act of coition. If 
an entrance is effected infection of the mare is liable to follow. 

Treatment in the early stages consists in a dose of physic (aloes, 6 
drams), and fomentations of warm water to the sheath and penis. If 
there is reason to suspect the presence of infection, inject the urethra 
twice daily with borax 1 dram, water 1 quart, using it tepid. Where 
the muco-purulent discharge indicates the supervention of the second 
stage, a more astringent injection may be employed (nitrate of silver 20 
grains, water 1 quart), and the same may be applied to the surface of 
the penis and inside the sheath. Balsam of copaiba (1 dram daily) 
may also be given with advantage after the purulent discharge has ap- 
peared. 

Every stallion suffering from urethritis should be withheld from serv- 
ice, as should mares with Ieucorrhcea. 

STRICTURE OF THE URETHRA. 

This is a permanent narrowing of the urethra at a given point, the 
result of previous inflammation, caused by the passage or arrest of a 
stone or gravel, by strong astringent injections in the early non-secret- 
ing stages of urethritis, or by contraction of the lining membrane occur- 
ring during the healing of ulcers in neglected inflammations of that 
canal. The trouble is shown by the passage of urine in a fine stream 
with straining, pain, and groaning, and by frequent painful erections. 
It must be remedied b5 r mechanical dilatation, with catheters just large 
enough to pass with gentle force, to be inserted once a day, and to be 
used of larger size as the passage will admit them. The catheter should 
be kept perfectly clean, and washed in a borax solution and well oiled 
before it is introduced. 

URINARY CALCULI — STONE — GRAVEL. 

These consist in some of the solids of the urine that have been pre- 
cipitated from the urine in the form of crystals, which remain apart as 
a fine powdery mass or magma, or aggregate into calculi or stones of 
varying size. Their composition is therefore determined in different 
animals by the salts and other constituents found dissolved in the 



78 

healthy urine, and by the additional constituents which may be thrown 
off in solution in the urine in disease. In this connection it is impor- 
tant to obseive the following analysis of the horse's urine in health: 

Water 918.5 

Urea 13.4 

Uric acid and urates 0. 1 

Hippuric acid 20. 4 

Lactic acid and lactates 1.0 

Mucus and organic mutter 22. 

Sulphates (alkaline) 1.2 

Phosphates (lime and sodn) T 0.2 

Chlorides (sodium) 1.0 

Carbonates (potash, magnesia, lime) 10. 

1000. 

The carbonate of lime, which is present in large amount in the urine ol 
horses fed on green fodder, is practically insoluble, and therefore forms 
in the passages after secretion, and its microscopic rounded crystals 
give the urine of such horses a milky whiteness. It is this material 
which constitutes the soft, white, pultaceous mass that sometimes fills 
the bladder to repletion and requires to be washed out. In hay-fed 
horses carbonates are still abundant, while in those mainly grain-fed 
they are replaced by hippurates and phosphates — the products of the 
wear of tissues — the carbonates being the result of oxidation of the 
vegetable acids in_ the food. Carbonate of lime, therefore, is a very 
common constituent of urinary calculi in herbivora, and in many cases 
is the most abundant constituent. 

Oxalate of lime, like carbonate of lime, is derived from the burning 
up of the carbonaceous matter of the food in the system, one important 
factor being the less perfect oxidation of the carbon. Indeed, Fiirsten- 
berg and Schmidt have demonstrated on man, horse, ox ; and rabbit, 
that under the full play of the breathing (oxidizing) forces oxalic, like 
other organic acids, is resolved into carbonic acid. In keeping with 
this is the observation of Lehmanu that in all cases in which man suf- 
fered from interference with the breathing, oxalate of lime appeared in 
the urine. An excess of oxalate of lime in the urine may, however, 
claim a different origin. Uric and hippuric acids are found in the urine 
ofcarnivora and herbivora, respectively, as the result of the healthy 
wear (disassimilation) of nitrogenous tissues. But if these products are 
fully oxidized they are thrown out in the form of the more soluble urea 
rather than as these acids. When uric acid out of the body is treated 
with peroxide of lead it is resolved into urea, allantoine, and oxalic 
acid, and Wcehler and Frerrichs found that the administration of uric 
acid not only increased the excretion of urea, but also of oxalic acid. 
It may therefore be inferred that oxalic acid is not produced from the 
carbonaceous food alone, but also from the disintegration of the nitro- 
genous tissues of the body. Au important element of its production 
is, however, the imperfect performance of the breathing functions, and 



79 

- 
hence it is liable to result from diseases of the chest (heaves, chronic 

bronchitis, etc.). This is above all likely to prove tbe case if the sub- 
ject is fed to excess on highly carbonaceous foods (grass and green food 
generally, potatoes, etc.). 

Carbonate of magnesia, another almost constant ingredient of the 
urinary calculi of the horse, is formed in the same way as the carbonate 
of lime, from the excess of carbonaceous food (organic acids), becoming 
oxidized into carbon dioxide, which unites with the magnesia derived 
from the food. 

The phosphates of lime and magnesia are not abundant in urinary 
calculi of the horse, the phosphates being only present to excess in the 
urine in two conditions; («) when the ration is excessive and specially 
rich in phosphorus (wheat bran, beans, peas, vetches, rape cake, oil 
cake, cotton-seed cake); and (b) when through the morbid destructive 
changes in the living tissues, and especially of the bones, a great 
amount of phosphorus is given off as a waste product. Under these 
conditions, however, the phosphates may contribute to the formation of 
calculi, and this is, above all, likely if the urine is retained iu the blad- 
der until it has undergone decomposition and given oif ammonia. The 
ammonia at once unites with the phosphate of magnesia to form a 
double salt, phosphate of ammonia and magnesia, which, being insolu- 
ble, is at once precipitated. The precipitation of this salt is, however, 
rare in the urine of the horse, though much more frequent in that of 
man and sheep. 

These are the chief mineral constituents of the urine which form in- 
gredients in the horse's calculi, for though iron and manganese are 
usually present it is only in minute quantities. 

The excess of mineral matters in a specimen of urine unquestionably 
contributes to the formation of calculi, just as solution of such matters 
out of the body is increasingly disposed to throw them down in the form 
of crystals as it becomes more concentrated and approaches nearer to 
the condition of saturation. Hence, in considering the causes of calculi 
we can not ignore the factor of an excessive ration, rich in mineral mat- 
ters and in carbonaceous matters (the source of carbonates and much 
of the oxalates), nor can we overlook the concentration of the urine 
that comes from dry food and privation of water, or from the existence 
of fever which causes suspension of the secretion of water. In these 
cases, at least the usual amount of solids are thrown off by the kid- 
neys, and as tho water is diminished there is danger of its approaching 
the point of supersaturation, when the dissolved solids must necessa- 
rily be thrown down. Hence, calculi are more common in stabled 
horses fed on dry grain and hay, in those denied a sufficiency of water 
or that have water supplied irregularly, in those subjected to profuse 
perspiration (as in summer), and in those suffering from a watery 
diarrhea. On the whole, calculi are most commonly found in winter, 
because the horses are then on dry feeding, but such dry feeding is 



80 

i 

even more conducive to them in summer when the condition is aggra- 
vated by the abundant loss of water by the skin. 

In the same way the extreme hardness of the water in certain dis- 
tricts must be looked upon as contributing to the concentration of the 
urine and correspondingly to the production of stone. The carbonates, 
sulphates, etc., of lime and magnesia taken in the water must be again 
thrown out, and just in proportion as these add to the solids of the 
urine they dispose it to precipitate its least soluble constituents. Thus 
the horse is very obnoxious to calculi on certain limestone soils, as over 
the calcareous formations of central and western New York, Pennsyl- 
vania, and Ohio, in America; of Norfolk, Suffolk, Derbyshire, Shrop- 
shire, and Gloucestershire, in England; of Poitou and Laudes, in 
France ; and Munich, in Bavaria. 

But the saturation of the urine from any or all of these conditions 
can only be looked on as an auxiliary cause, and not as in itself an 
efficient one, except on the rarest occasions. For a more direct 
and immediate cause we must look to the organic matter which 
forms a large proportion of all urinary calculi. This consists of mucus, 
albumen, pus, hyaline casts of the uriniferous tubes, epithelial cells, 
blood, etc., mainly agents that belong to the class of colloid or non- 
crystalline bodies. A horse may live for months and years with the 
urine habitually of a high density, and having the mineral constituents 
in excess, without the formation of stone or gravel; and again one with, 
dilute urine of low specific gravity will have a calculus. 

Kainey, Ord, and others furnish the explanation. They not only 
show that a colloid body, like mucus, albumen, pus, or blood, deter- 
mined the precipitation of the crystalline salts iu the solution, but they 
determined the precipitation in the form of globules or spheres, capa- 
ble of developing by further deposits into calculi. Hea,t intensifies 
this action of the colloids, and a colloid in a state of decomposition is 
specially active. The presence, therefore, of developing fungi and 
bacteria must be looked upon as active factors in causing calculi. 

In looking, therefore, for the immediate causes of calculi we must 
consider especially all those conditions which determine the presence 
of albumen, blood, and excess of mucus, pus, etc., in the urine. Thus 
diseases of distant organs leading to albuminuria, diseases of the kid- 
neys and urinary passages causing the escape of blood or the formation 
of mucus or pus, become direct causes of calculi. Foreign bodies of all 
kinds in the bladder or kidney have long been known as determining 
causes of calculi, and as forming the central nucleus. This is now ex- 
plained by the fact that these bodies are liable to carry bacteria into 
the passages and thus determine decomposition, and they are further 
liable to irritate the mucous membrane and become enveloped in a coat- 
ing of mucus, pus, and perhaps blood. 

The fact that horses appear to suffer from calculi, especially on the 
maguesian limestones, the same districts in which they suffer from 



81 

goiter, may be similarly explained. The unknown poison which pro- 
duces goiter presumably leads to such changes in the blood and urine 
as will furnish the colloid necessary for precipitation of the urinary 
salts iu the form of calculi. 

Classification of Urinary Calculi. — These have been named according 
to the place where they are found, renal (kidney), uretral (ureter), vesical 
(bladder), urethral (urethra), and preputial (sheath or prepuce). They 
have been otherwise named according to their most abundant chemical 
constituent, carbonate of lime, oxalate of lime, and phosphate of lime cal- 
culi. The stones formed of carbonates or phosphates are usually smooth 
on the surface, though they may be molded into the shape of the cav- 
ity in which they have been formed; thus those in the pelvis of the kid- 
ney may have two or three short branch-like prolongations, while those 
in the bladder are round, oval, or slightly flattened upon each other. 
Calculi containing oxalate of lime on the other hand have a rough- 
open, crystalline surface, which has gained for them the name of mul, 
berry calculi, from a supposed resemblance to that fruit. These are 
usually covered with more or less mucus or blood, produced by the irri- 
tation of the mucous membrane by their rough surfaces. The color of 
calculi varies from white to yellow and deep brown, the shades de- 
pending mainly on the amount of the coloring matter of blood, bile, or 
urine which they may contain. 

Renal Calculi. — These may consist of minute, almost microscopic de- 
posits in the uriuiferous tubes in the substance of the kidney, but more 
commonly they are large masses and lodged in the pelvis. The larger 
calculi, sometimes weighing 12 to 24 ounces, are molded in the pelvis 
of the kidney into a cylindroid mass, with irregular rounded swellings 
at intervals. Some have a deep brown, rough, crystalline surface of 
oxalate of lime, while others have a smooth, pearly white aspect from 
carbonate of lime. A smaller culculus, which has been called coral- 
line, is also cylindroid, with a number of brown, rough, crystalline 
oxalate of lime branches and whitish depressions of carbonate. These 
vary in size from 15 grains to nearly 2 ounces. Less frequently are 
found masses of very hard, brownish white, rounded, pea-like calculi. 
These are smoother, but on the surface crystals of oxalate of lime may 
be detected with a lens. Some renal calculi are formed of more dis- 
tinct layers, more loosely adherent to each other, and contain an excess 
of mucus but no oxalate of lime. Finally a loose aggregation of small 
masses, forming a very friable calculus, is found of all sizes within the 
limits of the pelvis of the kidney. These, too, are in the main car- 
bonate of lime (84 to 88 per cent.), and without oxalate. 

Symptoms of renal calculi are violent colicky pains appearing sud- 
denly, very often in connection with exhausting work or the drawing 
of specially heavy loads, and in certain cases disappearing with equal 
suddenness. The nature of the colic becomes more manifest if it is 
associated with stiffness of the back and hind limbs, frequent passage 
11035 6 



82 

of urine, and above all the passage of gravel with the urine, especially 
at the time of the access of relief. The passage of blood and pus in the 
urine is equally significant. If the irritation of the kidney goes on to 
active inflammation then the symptoms of nephritis are added. 

Uretral Calculi. — These are so-called because they are found in the 
passage leading from the kidney to the bladder. They are simply small 
renal calculi which have escaped from the pelvis of the kidney and 
have become arrested in the ureter. They give rise to symptoms almost 
identical with those of renal calculi, with this difference, that the colicky 
pains, caused by the obstruction of the ureter by the impacted calculus, 
are more violent, and if the calculus passes on iuto the bladder the 
relief is instantaneous and complete. If the ureteris completely blocked 
for a length of time the retained urine may give rise'to destructive in- 
flammation in the kidney, which may end in the entire absorption of 
that orgau, leaving only a fibrous capsule containing an urinous fluid. 
If both the ureters are similarly blocked the animal will die of urajmic 
poisoning. 

Treatment of Renal and Uretral Calculi. — This is unsatisfactory, as it 
is only the small calculi that can pass through the ureters and escape 
into the bladder. This may be favored by agents which will relax the 
walls of the ureters by counteracting their spasm and even lessening 
their tone, and by a liberal use of water and watery fluids to increase 
the urine and the pressure upon the calculus from behind. One or 
two ounces of laudanum or two drams of extract of belladonna, may 
be given and repeated as it may be necessary, the relief of the pain 
being a fair criterion of the abating of the spasm. To the same end 
use warm fomentations across the loins, and these should be kept up 
persistently until relief is obtained. These act not alone by sooth- 
iug and relieving the spasm and inflammation, but they also favor the 
freer secretion of a more watery urine and thus tend to carry off the 
smaller calculi. To further secure this object give cool water freely, 
and let the food be only such as contains a large proportion of liquid, 
gruels, mashes, turnips, beets, apples, pumpkins, ensilage, succulent 
grasses, etc. If the acute stage has passed and the presence of the 
calculus is manifested only by the frequent passage of urine with gritty 
particles, by stiffness of the loins and hind limbs and by tenderness to 
pressure, the most promising resort is a long run at pasture where the 
grasses are fresh and succulent. The long- continued secretion of a 
watery urine will sometimes cause the breaking down of a calculus, as 
the imbibition of the less dense fluid by the organic sponge-like frame 
work of the calculus causes it to swell and thus lessens its cohesion. 
The same end is sought by the long continued use of alkalies (carbonate 
of potassium), and of acids (muriatic), each acting in a different way to 
alter the density and cohesion of the stone. But it is only excep- 
tionally that any of these methods is entirely satisfactory. If inflam- 
mation oi the kidneys develop, treat as advised under that head. 



83 

Stone in the bladder. — Vesical calculus. — Cystic calculus. — These may be 
of any size up to over a pound weight. One variety is rough aud 
crystalline and has a yellowish white or deep brown color. These con- 
tain about 87 per cent, carbonate of lime, the remainder being carbonate 
of magnesia, oxalate of lime, and organic matter. The phosphatic cal- 
culi are smooth and white and formed of thin concentric layers of great 
hardness extending from the nucleus outward. Beside the phosphate 
of lime these contain the carbonates of lime and magnesia and organic 
matter. In some cases the bladder contains and may be even distended 
by a soft pultaceous mass made up of minute round granules of carbon- 
ates of lime and magnesia. This, when removed and dried, makes a 
firm, white, stony mass. Sometimes this magma is condensed into a 
solid mass in the bladder by reason of the binding action of the mucus 
and other organic matter, and then forms a conglomerate stone of nearly 
uniform consistency and without stratification. 

The symptoms of stone in the bladder are more obvious than those of 
renal calculus. The rough mulberry calculi especially lead to irritation 
of the mucous membrane and frequent passing of urine in small quan- 
tities and often mingled with mucus or blood, or containing minute 
gritty particles. At times the flow is suddenly arrested, though the 
animal continues to strain and the bladder is not quite emptied. In 
the smooth phosphatic variety the irritation is much less marked, and 
may even be altogether absent. With the pultaceous deposit in the 
bladder there is incontinence of urine, which dribbles away continually 
and keeps the hair on the inner side of the thighs matted with soft 
magma. In all cases alike the calculus may be felt by the examination 
of the bladder with the oiled hand in the rectum. The pear-shaped 
outline of the bladder can be felt beneath, and within it the solid oval 
body. It is most easily recognized if the organ is half full of liquid, as 
then it is not grasped by the contracting walls of the bladder, but may 
be made to move from place to place in the liquid. If a pultaceous 
mass is present it has a soft, doughy feeling, aud when pressed an in- 
dentation is left. 

In the mare the hard stone may be touched by the finger introduced 
through the short urethra. 

The treatment of stone in the bladder consists in the removal of the 
offending body. In the mare this is easily effected with the lithotomy 
forceps. These are slightly warmed and oiled, and carried forward 
along the floor of the passage of the vulva for 4 inches, when the ori- 
fice of the urethra will be felt exactly in the median line. Through 
this the forceps are gradually pushed with gentle oscillating movement 
until they enter the bladder and strike against the hard surface of the 
stone. The stone is now grasped between the blades, care being taken 
to include no loose fold of the mucous membrane, and it is gradually 
with drawn with the same careful oscillating motions as before. Facility 
and safety in seizing the stone will be greatly fnvored by having the 



84 

bladder half full of liquid, aud if necessary one oiled hand may be intro- 
duced into the rectum or vagina to assist. The resulting irritation 
may be treated by an injection of laudanum, 1 ounce, in a pint of tepid 
water. 

The removal of the stone in the horse is a much more difficult pro- 
ceeding. It consists in cutting into the urethra just beneath the anus 
and introducing the lithotomy forceps from this forward into the blad- 
der, as in the mare. It is needful to distend the urethra with tepid 
water or to insert a sound or catheter to furnish a guide upon which 
the incision may be made, aud in case of a large stone it may be need- 
ful to enlarge the passage by cutting in a direction upward and out- 
ward with a probe-pointed knife, the back of which is slid along in the 
groove of a director until it enters the bladder. 

The horse may be operated upon in the standing position, being 
simply pressed against a wall by a pole passed from before backward 
along the other side of the body. The tepid water is injected into the 
end of the penis until it is felt to fluctuate under the pressure of the 
finger, in the median line over the bone just beneath the anus. The 
incision is then made into the center of the fluctuating canal, aud from 
above downward. When a sound or catheter is used as a guide it is 
inserted through the penis until it can be felt through the skin at the 
point where the incision is to be made beneath the anus. The skin is 
then rendered tense by the thumb and fingers of the left hand pressing 
on the two sides of the sound, while the right hand, armed with a 
scalpel, cuts downward on to the catheter. This vertical incision into 
the canal should escape wounding any important blood-vessel. It is iu 
making the obliquely lateral incision in the subsequent dilatation of the 
urethra and neck of the bladder that such danger is to be apprehended. 

If the stone is too large to be extracted through the urethra it may 
be broken down with the lithotrite and extracted piecemeal with the 
forceps. The lithotrite is an instrument composed of a- straight stem 
bent for an inch or more to one side at its free end so as to form an obtuse 
angle, and having on the same side a sliding bar moving in a groove in 
the stem and operated by a screw so that the stone may be seized be- 
tween the two blades at its free extremity and crushed again and again 
into pieces small enough to extract. Extra care is required to avoid 
injury to the urethra in the extraction of the angular fragments, and 
the gravel or powder that can not be removed in this way must be 
washed out as advised below. 

When a pultaceous magma of carbonate of lime accumulates in the 
bladder it must be washed out by injecting water through a catheter 
by means of a force pump or a funnel, shaking it up with the hand intro- 
duced through the rectum and allowing the muddy liquid to flow out 
through the tube. This is to be repeated until the bladder is empty 
and the water comes away clear. A catheter with a double tube is 
sometimes used, the injection passing in through the one tube and 



85 

escaping through the other. But the advantage is more apparent than 
real, as the retention of the water until the magma has been shaken 
up and mixed with it hastens greatly its complete evacuation. To 
prevent the formation of a new deposit any fault in feeding (dry grain 
and hay with privation of water, excess of beans, peas, wheat bran, etc.) 
and disorders of stomach, liver, and lungs must be corrected. Give 
abundance of soft drinking water, encouraging the animal to drink by 
a handful of salt daily; let the food be laxative, consisting largely of 
roots, apples, pumpkins, ensilage, and give daily in the drinking water 
a dram of carbonate of potash or soda. Powdered gentian root (3 
drams daily) will also serve to restore the tone of the stomach and 
system at large. 

Urethral calculus. — Stone in the urethra. — This is less frequent than 
in cattle and sheep, owing to the larger size of the urethra in the horse 
and the absence of the S- shaped curve and vermiform appendix. The 
calculi arrested in the urethra are never formed there, but consist of 
cystic calculi which have been small enough to pass through the neck 
of the bladder, but too large to pass through the whole length of the 
urethra and escape. Such calculi therefore are primarily formed either 
in the bladder or kidney, and have the chemical composition of the 
other calculi found in those organs. They may be arrested at any point 
of the urethra, from the neck of the bladder back to the bend of the 
tube beneath the anus, and from that point down to the extremity of 
the penis. I have found them most frequently in the papilla on the 
extreme end of the penis, and immediately behind this. 

The symptoms are violent straining to urinate, but without any dis- 
charge, or with the escape of water in drops only. Examination of the 
end of the penis will detect the swelling of the papilla or the urethra 
behind it, and the presence of a hard mass in the center. A probe in- 
serted into the urethra will strike against the gritty calculus. If the 
stone has been arrested higher up its position may be detected as a 
small, hard, sensitive knot on the line of the urethra, in the median line 
of the lower surface of the penis, or on the floor of the pelvis in the 
median line from the neck of the bladder back to the bend of the urethra 
beneath the anus. In any case the urethra between the neck of the 
bladder and the point of obstruction is likely to be filled with fluid, and 
to feel like a distended tube fluctuating on pressure. 

Treatment may be begun by an attempt to extract the calculi by 
manipulation of the papilla on the end of the penis. This failing, the 
calculus may be seized with a pair of fine-pointed forceps and with- 
drawn from the urethra; or, if necessary, a probe- pointed knife may 
be inserted and the urethra slightly dilated, or even laid open, and the 
stone removed. If the stone has been arrested higher up it must be 
extracted by a direct incision through the walls of the urethra and 
down upon the nodule. If in the free (protractile) portion of the penis, 
that organ is to be withdrawn from its sheath until the nodule is ex- 



86 

posed and can be incised. If behind the scrotum, the incision must be 
made in the median line between the thighs and directly over the 
nodule, the skin having been rendered tense by the fingers and thumb 
of the left hand. If the stone has been arrested in the intra-pelvic 
portion of the urethra, the incision must be made beneath the anus and 
the calculus extracted with forceps, as in stone in the bladder. The 
wound in the urethra may be stitched up and usually heals slowly 
but satisfactorily. Healing will be favored by washing two or three 
times daily with a solution of a teaspoonful of carbolic acid in a pint 
of water. 

Preputial calculus. — Calculus in the sheath or bilocular cavity. — These 
are concretions in the sheath, though the term has been also applied 
to the nodule of sebaceous matter which accumulates in the blind 
pouches (bilocular cavity) by the sides of the papilla on the end of the 
penis. Within the sheath the concretion may be a soft, cheesy-like 
sebaceous matter, or a genuine calculus of carbonate, oxalate, phos- 
phate and sulphate of lime, carbonate of magnesia and organic matter. 
These are easily removed with the fingers, after which the sheath 
should be washed out with castile soap and warm water, and smeared 
with sweet-oil. 



PLATE LV. 




pjr 



co, CorticaZ for vascular)j)o?~tiori; b, ^JediiUari/ for tubular Jjportiorv; 
c,Perip7ieraLjoortiort of 'the latter; d-, Ulterior of t7iej)elvis; d'd', 
^4rms ofihej>elvis; e, Border of the crest; flnfuruilzbuainv; g, Ureter. 



Geo.Mar.vaf'ter DArboval, p. 669. 



?a^.e!'. h W ; !h?iT^Unflgraphir.gCo.New ?ork 



LONGITUDINAL SECTION THROUGH KIDNEY. 



PLATE V 




Structure of the Kidney. Diagrammatic. 
a, ^Medullary layer; b.Boundarg xone,- c,Cbrtical Icwer,- I, Excretory tube; 2/Jpen- 
ingon the sitnunii \ol >enal papilla.; -3 first branch of bifurcation; 4> Second braridi 
ol 'bifurcation; S;Third branch of bifurcation; 6, Straight collecting tube,- 7,Jiinc- 
tzorial tubule,- 8,Ascending portion offfenle's loop,- ^Descending portion ofjffenle's 
loop,- W,£oop offfenle; ll t Convoluted tubule; 12^ Midpiyhian coipuscle,- l3,Henal ar- 
tery,- IfyHmrich supplying the glomeruli,- I6,dfierent vessel of the glomeruli; J6, 
lira nch going directly to the capillaries; 17, Straight arterioles corning directlg 
from the renal artery; 18, Stat .igkt arteriole corning from die afferent vessel oftft^e, 
glomerulus; 19, Sayughl arteriole coming from tlie capillary plexus,- 10, Vascular- 
loop of die pyramids,- %/,E'lfervnt vessel of the glomerulus going to tfie capillary 
plexus; 22, Capillary plexus of the glomerular part of the cortical substance; 



lobular vein,- 28, Vein- receiving the venae rectae,- 2,9, Venae rectae. 
JVote: The shaded part of the urinary ducts represent the part in which tlie 
epiiheluftni^roaWJea^andofdgranulrirappearxirice. 



Geo.M«rx,after D'Arboval, p. 372. 



:<.-\~.- iV. , :!hei:nsL(lnoeraphing Co Ncw v < 



MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF KIDNEY' 



PLATE VI 




f 



Renal Glomerulus. 
d^4rtery of the glonie7-ulas; b,J3rotnch supplying tfie afferent, 
vessel of tlie glomerulus; c,dffe7-ent vessel of the glo7?ierizle; 
d,, ^Artery goi?ig directly to tlte capillary ple*xus oft/m cortical 
substance; e, Capill/xrgplejcus; f, Glomerulus. 




Renal Glomerulus ■with its afferent vessels and efferent s. 
a,Branc7i of renal artery; b, Afferent vessel of the 
giomerulzzs; c.Glonveruuis; clAftercJit vessel go- 
ing zrtfo corpuscle e, ofJUtilpir/lti . 



C7eo.Marx,after- D'ArWal, p. 373. 



MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF KIDNEY 



PLATE VII. 




Phosphatic calculus, uric acici nucleus. 







X2I5 
Calculus of oxalate of time. 




Jtevial casts. Some deprived of ' 
epithelium.Two are dee/jer colored, 
from the presence of urate of so da. 



Straight force/js used, 
in removing calculi. 



Haines.de] after Hurtrel D'Arboval. 

CALCULI AND INSTRUMENT FOR REMOVAL . 



«uaWi)he!msUlhcgr3FhingCoNewYjrk 



DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 



By W. H. HARBAUGH. V. S., Richmond, Virginia. 



The organs pertaining to the respiratory function may be popularly 
classed as follows: The nasal openings, or nostrils; the nasal chambers, 
through which the air passes in the head; the sinuses iu the head, com- 
municating with the nasal chambers; the pharynx, common to the 
functions of respiration and alimentation; the larynx, a complicated 
structure situated at the top of the wind-pipe; the trachea, or wind- 
pipe; the bronchi (into which the wind-pipe divides), two tubes leading 
fcom the wind-pipe to the right and left lung, respectively ; the bron- 
chial tubes, which penetrate and convey air to all parts of the lungs ; 
the lungs. 

The pleura is a thin membrane that envelops the lung and is reflected 
against the walls of the thoracic cavity. The diaphragm is a muscular 
structure, completely separating the contents of the thoracic cavity 
from those of the abdominal cavity. It is essentially a muscle of in- 
spiration, and the principal one. Other muscles aid in the mechanism 
of respiration, but the diseases or injuries of them have nothing to do 
with the class under consideration. 

Just within the nasal openings the skin becomes gradually but per- 
ceptibly finer, until it is succeeded by the mucous membrane; the line 
of dernarkation is not always well defined. Near about the junction of 
the skin and membrane is a small hole, presenting the appearance of 
having been made with a punch ; this is the opening of the nasal duct, 
a canal that conveys the tears from the eyes. Within and above the 
nasal openings are the cavities or fissures called the false nostrils ; if 
the finger is inserted up into them it will be demonstrated that the 
superior extremity is blind; just in this situation there is often found 
a little tumor, to be described hereafter. The nasal chambers are com- 
pletely separated, the right from the left, by a cartilaginous partition. 
Each nasal chamber is divided into three continuous compartments 
by the two turbinated bones. 

The mucous membrane lining the nasal chambers, and in fact the 
entire respiratory tract, is much more delicate and more frequently 

87 



88 

diseased than the mucous membrane of any other part of the body. 
The sinuses of the head are compartments which communicate with the 
nasal chambers and are lined with a continuation of the same mem- 
brane that lines the nasal chambers; their presence increases the 
volume and modifies the form of the head without increasing its weight. 

The horse, in a normal condition, breathes exclusively through the 
nostrils ; no air passes through the mouth in respiration. This is one 
reason why horses probably are affected oftener with colds than other 
animals. The organs of respiration are more liable to disease than the 
organs connected with any other function of the animal, and, as many 
of the causes can be prevented, it is both important and profitable to 
know and study the causes. The respiratory surface in the lungs of 
the horse is estimated to be from 200 to 500 square feet. 

The cause of many of the diseases of these organs may be given under 
a common head, because even a simple cold, if neglected or badly 
treated, may run into the most complicated lung disease and terminate 
fatally. In the spring and fall, when the animals are changing their 
coats, there is a marked predisposition to contract disease, and conse- 
quently care should be taken at those periods to prevent other exciting 
causes. 

Badly ventilated stables are a frequent source of disease. It is a great 
mistake to think that country stables necessarily have purer air than 
city stables. Stables on some farms are so faultily constructed that it 
is almost impossible for the foul air to gain an exit. All stables should 
have an unlimited supply of pure air, and be so arranged that strong 
draughts can not blow directly on the animals. Hot stables are almost 
always illy ventilated, and the hot stable is a cause of disease on account 
of the extreme change of temperature a horse is liable to when taken 
out, and extreme changes of temperature are to be avoided as certain 
causes of disease. A horse taken from pasture and kept in a hot stable 
is almost sure to contract a cold ; the stable should be thrown open and 
the temperature gradually increased in such cases, when practicable, to 
avoid the sudden change. 

A cold, close stable is invariably damp, and is to be avoided as much 
as the hot, close, and foul stable. Horses changed from a cold to a warm 
stable are more liable to contract cold than when changed from a warm 
to a cold stable. Pure air is more essential than warmth, and this fact 
should be especially remembered when the stable is made close and foul 
to gain the warmth. It is more economical to keep the horse warm with 
blankets than to prevent the ingress of pure air in order to make the 
stable warm. 

Stables should be well drained and kept clean. Some farmers allow 
dung to accumulate in the stalls until there is hardly sufficient room for 
the horses. This is a pernicious practice, as the decomposing organic 
matter evolves poisonous gases that are predisposing or exciting causes 
of disease. When a horse is overheated it is not safe to allow him to 



89 

dry by evaporation ; rubbing him dry and gradually cooling him out is 
the wisest treatment. When a horse is hot — covered with sweat — it is 
dangerous to allow him to stand in a draught ; it is the best plan to walk 
him until his temperature moderates. In such cases a light blanket 
thrown over the animal may prevent a cold. Overwork or overexertion 
often causes the most fatal cases of congestion of the lungs. Avoid pro- 
longed or fast work when the horse is out of condition or unaccustomed 
to it. Animals that have been working out in cold rains should be dried 
and cooled out, and not left to dry by evaporation. When the tempera- 
ture of the weather is at the extreme, either of heat or cold, diseases ot 
the organs of respiration are most frequent. 

It is not to be supposed that farmers can give their horses the par- 
ticular attention given to valuable racing and pleasure horses, but 
they can most assuredly give them common-sense care, and this will 
often save the life of a valuable or useful animal. Neglect on the part 
of the owner is as often (perhaps oftener) the. cause of disease in the 
horse as neglect on the part of the servant. If the owner properly 
considers his interests he will study the welfare of his horses so that 
he may be able to instruct the servant in details of stable manage- 
ment, as it often happens that the fault on the part of the servant is 
due to want of knowledge more than to willful neglect. 

WOUNDS ABOUT THE NOSTRILS. 

Wounds in this neighborhood are common, and are generally caused 
by getting snagged on a nail or splinter, or by the bite of another 
horse; or by getting "run into," or by running against something. 
Occasionally the nostril is so badly torn and lacerated that it is im- 
possible to effect a cure without leaving the animal blemished for 
life, but in the majority of instances the blemish or scar is due to the 
want of conservative treatment on the part of the owner or attendant. 
As soon as possible after the accident the parts should be brought 
together and held there by stitches. If too much time is allowed to 
elapse the swelling of the parts will considerably interfere. The skin 
in this neighborhood is thin and delicate, and therefore it is easy to in- 
sert sutures. Never cut away any skin that may be loose and hang- 
ing, or else a scar will certainly remain. Bring the parts in direct ap- 
position and place the stitches from a quarter to a half inch apart, as 
circumstances may demand. It is not necessary to have special sur- 
geons' silk and needles for this operation ; good linen thread or ordi- 
nary silk thread will answer. The wound afterwards only requires to 
be kept clean. For this purpose it should be cleansed and discharges 
washed away daily with a solution made of carbolic acid 1 part, in 
water 40 parts. If the horse is inclined to rub the wound against some 
object on account of the irritability, his head should be tied by means 
of two halter ropes to prevent him rubbing the wound open. The 
head should be so tied about ten days, except when at work or eating. 



90 

TUMORS WITHIN THE NOSTRILS. 

As before mentioned, a small globular tumor is sometimes found 
within the false nostril, under that part of the skin that is seen to puff 
or rise and fall when a horse is exerted and breathing hard. These 
tumors contain matter of a cheesy consistency, and are simple. If the 
tumor is well opened and the matter squeezed out nature will do the 
rest to perform a perfect cure. If the opening is made from the out- 
side through the skin it should be at the most dependent part, but 
much the best way to open the tumor is from the inside. Quiet the 
animal, gently insert your finger up in the direction of the tumor, and 
you will soon discover that it is much larger inside than it appears 
to be on the outside. If necessary put a twitch on the ear of the 
horse to quiet him ; run the index finger of your left band against the 
tumor; now, with the right hand, carefully insert the knife by run- 
ning the back of the blade along the index finger of the left hand until 
the tumor is reached ; with the left index finger guide the point of the 
blade quickly and surely into the tumor ; make the opening large ; there 
is no danger ; a little blood may flow out for awhile, but it is of no conse- 
quence. Squeeze out the matter and keep the part clean. 

COLD IN THE HEAD — CATARRH. 

Catarrh means a discharge of fluid from the mucous membrane. The 
form of catarrh under present consideration is at first a congestion, 
followed by inflammation of the mucous membrane of the nasal 
chambers — the Schneideriau or pituitary membrane, as it is specifically 
termed. The inflammation usually extends to the membrane of the 
sinuses of the head and often to the membrane of the larynx and 
pharynx, causing the complication of sore throat. Quite frequently the 
membrane of the eyes is also affected, as evidenced by its congested 
condition and the flow of tears down over the cheeks; the nasal duct 
(spoken of before) is lined with a continuation of the same membrane, 
and hence the inflammation of the membrane of the eyes is only an ex- 
tension of the disease over a continuous tract, and not a specific disease 
as often supposed. The membrane of the nasal duct being swollen, the 
effect of the congestion or inflammation, the tears can not flow freely 
through it, therefore they escape from the eyes and flow over the cheeks. 

Symptoms, — The membrane at the beginning of the attack is dry, con- 
gested and irritable; it is of a much deeper hue than natural, pinkish- 
red or red. Soon a watery discharge from the nostrils makes its ap- 
pearance ; the eyes may also be more or less affected, and tears flow 
over the cheeks. The animal has some fever, which may be easily de- 
tected by placing the finger in the mouth, as the feeling of heat conveyed 
to the finger will be greater than natural. 

To become somewhat expert in ascertaining the changes of tempera- 
ture in the horse, it is only necessary to place the finger often in the 



91 

mouths of horses known to be healthy. After you have become accus- 
tomed to the warmth of the mouth of the healthy animal you will have 
no difficulty in detecting a marked increase of the temperature. Some 
veterinarians become so expert in this method of examination that they 
trust to it in preference to the use of thermometers. 
. The animal may be dull j he frequently emits a sort of sneezing snort, 
but does not cough unless the throat is affected j he expels the air 
forcibly through his nostrils very often in a manner that may be aptly 
called "blowing his nose." A few days after the attack begins the dis. 
charge from the nostrils changes from a watery to that of a thick mu- 
cilaginous state, of a yellowish -white color, and may be more or less 
profuse. Often the appetite is lost, and the animal becomes debili- 
tated. 

Treatment. — This disease is not serious, but inasmuch as neglect or 
bad treatment may cause it to run into a dangerous complication, it 
should receive proper attention. The animal should not be worked for 
a few days. A few days of quiet rest, with pure air and good food, 
will be of greater benefit than medication administered while the horse 
is excited and exposed to draughts and changes of temperature. 
The benefit derived from the inhalation of steam can not be overesti- 
mated. This is effected by holding the horse's head over a bucketful 
of boiling water so that the animal will be compelled to inhale steam 
with every inhalation of air. Stirring the hot water with a wisp of hay 
causes the steam to arise in greater abundance. By no means adopt 
the pernicious method of steaming — advised by some authors and prac- 
ticed by many people — by putting the head in a bag with hot water or 
scalded bran. Common sense would be sufficient to condemn the method, 
if those who practice it would only think. With the head so closely 
confined in the bag the horse is compelled to inhale over and over the 
foul air expelled from the lungs. This is malpractice on a healthy 
horse, and much worse when the animal is ill, for then it has a greater 
necessity for pure air. 

The horse should be made to inhale steam four or five times a day, 
about fifteen or twenty minutes each time. 

Particular attention should be paid to the diet. Give bran mashes, 
scalded oats, linseed gruel, and grass if in season. If the horse evinces 
no desire for this soft diet, it is well to allow any kind of food he will 
eat, such as hay, oats, corn, etc. 

If the animal is constipated, relieve this symptom by injections 
(enemas) of warm water into the rectum (last gut) three or four times a 
day, but under no circumstances administer purgative medicines. 

For simple cases the foregoing is all that is required, but if the ap- 
petite is lost, and the animal appears debilitated and dull, give 3 
ounces of the solution of acetate of ammonia and 2 drams of powdered 
chlorate of potassium diluted with a pint of water three times a day as 
a drench. Be careful when giving the drench j do not pound the horse 



92 

on the gullet to mate hi in swallow ; be patient, and take time, and do 
it right. . 

If the weather be cold, blanket the animal and keep him in a com- 
fortable stall. If the throat is sore, treat as advised for that ailment, 
to be described hereafter. 

When the inflammatory symptoms subside and the appetite is not re- 
gained, give 2 ounces each of the tincture of gentian and spirits of nitrous 
ether in a pint of water, as a drench, every night and morning for sev- 
eral days. If, after ten days or two weeks, the discharge from the nos- 
trils continues, give 1 dram of powdered sulphate of iron three times a 
day. This may be mixed with bran and oats, if the horse will eat it, 
but if he will not eat the food with the iron in it, give the iron as a 
drench, dissolved in a pint of water. 

It may be objected that rather more space than necessary is devoted 
to this simple affection ; but when it is known that there is a tendency 
to the extension of the trouble, and that serious complications may en- 
sue, the fact should be appreciated that there is every reason why the 
common cold should be thoroughly understood and intelligently treated 
in order to prevent the more dangerous diseases. 

CHRONIC) CATARRH — NASAL GLEET. 

This is a subacute or chronic inflammation of some part of the mem- 
brane affected in common cold, the disease just described. It is mani- 
fested by a persistent discharge of a thick, white, or yellowish- white 
matter from one or both nostrils. The sinuses of the head are the usual 
seat of the disease. The commonest cause is a neglected or badly 
treated cold, and it usually follows those cases where the horse has 
suffered exposure, been overworked, or has not received proper food, 
and, as a consequence, has become debilitated. 

Other but less frequent causes for this affection are : Fractures of 
the bones that involve the membrane of the sinuses ; and even blows 
on the head over the sinuses, of sufficient force to rupture blood-vessels 
within. The blood thus escaping into the sinus acts as an irritant, and 
sets up an inflammation. Diseased teeth often involve a sinus, and 
cause a fetid discharge from the nostril. Violent coughing is said to 
have forced particles of food into the sinus, which acted as a cause of 
the disease. Tumors growing in the sinuses are known to have caused 
it. It is also attributed to matter from disease of the turbinated bones. 
Absorption of the bones forming the walls of the sinuses has been 
caused by the pressure of pus collecting in them, and by tumors filling 
up the cavity. 

Symptoms. — The long-continued discharge, which varies iu quantity 
according to the attendant circumstances — the cause of the trouble and 
the part affected — will invariably indicate the disease. Great caution 
must be exercised when examining these cases, as horses have been 
condemned as glaudered when really there was nothing more ailing 



93 

tbetQ than nasal gleet. This affection is nob contagious, nor is it dan- 
gerous, although difficult to cure in some instances. In most cases the 
discharge is from one nostril only, which signifies that the sinuses ou 
that side of the head are affected. The discharge may be intermittent, 
that is, quantities may be discharged at times, and again little or none 
for a day or so. The glands under and between the bones of the lower 
jaw may be enlarged. The peculiar ragged-edged ulcer of glanders is 
not to be found on the membrane within the nostrils, but occasionally 
sores are to be seen there. If there is any doubt about it, you should 
study well the symptoms of glanders to enable you to be at least com- 
petent to form a safe opinion. 

The eye on the side of the discharging nostril may have a peculiar 
appearance and look smaller than its fellow. There may be an enlarge- 
ment, having the appearance of a bulging out of the bone over the 
part affected, between or below the eyes. The breath may be offensive, 
which indicates decomposition of the matter or bones, or, especially, 
disease of the teeth. A diseased tooth is further indicated by the 
horse holding his head to one side when eating, or dropping the food 
from the mouth after partly chewing it. When you tap on the bones 
between the eyes, below the eyes and above the back teeth of the 
upper jaw, a hollow drum like sound is emitted, but if the sinus is 
filled with pus or contains a large tumor the sound emitted will be the 
same as if a solid substance were struck ; by this means the sinus 
affected may be located in some instances. The hair may be rough 
over the affected part, or even the bone may be soft to the touch and 
the part give somewhat to pressure, or leave an impression where it is 
pressed upon with the finger. 

Treatment. — The cause of the trouble must be ascertained before 
treatment is commenced. In the many cases where the animal is in 
poor condition (in fact in all cases), he should have the most nutritive 
food and regular exercise. The food, or box containing it, should be 
placed on the ground, as the dependent position of the head favors the 
discharge. 

The cases that do not require a surgical operation must, as a rule, 
have persistent medical treatment. Mineral tonics are of the most 
value. For eight days give the following mixture: Sulphate of iron, 3 
ounces; powdered nux vomica, 1 ounce; mix and make into sixteen 
powders. Give one powder mixed with the food twice a day. AVhen 
all of the foregoing has been administered the following may be tried 
for eight days: Sulphate of copper, 4 ounces; powdered gentian, 6 oun- 
ces; mix and divide into sixteen powders. Give one on the food twice 
a day. If the animal will not eat the powder on the food, put the medi- 
cine in a pint of water in a bottle, shake well and give as a drench. 
After this substitute the following: One dram of iodide of potassium 
dissolved in a bucketful of drinking water, one hour before each meal. 
Much benefit is often derived from the effect of a blister over the face. 



94 

The ordinary fly blister plaster of the drug store mixed with one third its 
weight of lard is efficient. Sulphur burnt in the stable while the ani- 
mal is there to inhale its fumes is also a valuable adjunct. Care should 
be taken that the fumes of the burning sulphur are sufficiently diluted 
with air, so as not to suffocate the horse. Chloride of lime sprinkled 
around the stall is good. Also keep a quantity of the chloride under 
the hay in the manger so that the gases will be inhaled as the horse 
holds his head over the hay while eating. Keep the nostrils washed; 
the discharges may be washed away for appearance sake, but squirting 
solutions up the nose is worse than useless, as they do not come in con- 
tact with the diseased part. 

If the nasal gleet is the result of a diseased tooth the tooth must be re- 
moved, and the subsequent treatment will be according to indications. 
The operation of trephining is the best possible way to remove the 
tooth in such cases, as it immediately opens the cavity which can be at- 
tended to direct. 

In all those cases of nasal gleet where sinuses contain either collec- 
tions of pus or tumors, the only relief is by the trephine; and it is a 
fact that, no matter how thoroughly described, this is an operation that 
will be very seldom attempted by the non-professional, although the 
operation is simple and attended in the majority of instances with suc- 
cess. It would therefore be a useless waste of time to give the modus 
operandi. 

An abscess involving the turbinated bones is similar to the collection 
of pus in the sinuses, and must be relieved by trephining. 

THICKENING OF THE MEMBRANE. 

This is sometimes denoted by a chronic discharge, a snuffling in the 
breathing and a contraction of the nostril. It is a result of common 
cold and requires the same treatment as prescribed for nasal gleet, viz, 
the sulphate of iron, sulphate of copper, iodide of potassium, etc. The 
membranes of both sides may be affected, but one side only is the rule; 
and the affected side may be easily detected by holding the hand tightly 
over one nostril at a time. When the healthy side is closed in this 
manner, the breathing through the affected side will demonstrate a 
decreased caliber or an obstruction. 

NASAL POLYPUS. 

Tumors with narrow bases (somewhat pear-shaped) are occasionally 
found attached to the membrane of the nasal chambers, and are ob- 
structions to breathing through the side in which they are located. 
They vary much in size; some are so small that their presence is not 
manifested, while others almost completely fill up the chamber, thereby 
causing a serious obstruction to the passage of air. The pedicel of the 
tumor is generally attached high up in the chamber, and usually the 



95 

tumor can not be seen, but occasionally it increases in size until it can 
be observed within the nostril. Sometimes, instead of hanging down 
towards the nasal opening, it falls back into the pharynx: It causes a 
discharge from the nostril, a more or less noisy snuffling sound in breath- 
ing, according to its size, a discharge of blood (if it is injured), and 
sneezing. 

The side that it occupies can be detected in the same way as described 
for the detection of the affected side when the breathing is obstructed 
by a thickened membrane. 

The only relief is removal of the polypus, which, like all other opera- 
tions, should be done by an expert when it is possible to secure one. 
The operation is performed by grasping the base of the tumor with suit- 
able forceps and twisting it round and round until it is torn from its 
attachment. The resulting hemorrhage is checked by the use of an 
astringent lotion, such as a solution of the tincture of iron, etc. 

PHARYNGEAL POLYPUS. 

This is exactly the same kind of tumor described as nasal polypus, 
the only difference being in the situation. Indeed, the pedicel of the 
tumor may be attached to the membrane of the nasal chamber as before 
explained, or it may be attached in the fauces (opening of the back part 
of the mouth) which is often the case, and by the body of the tumor 
falling into the pharynx it gets the name of pharyngeal polypus. In 
this situation it may seriously interfere with breathing. Sometimes it 
drops into the larynx, causing the most alarming symptoms. The ani- 
mal coughs or tries to cough, saliva flows from the mouth, the breath- 
ing is performed with the greatest difficulty and accompanied by a loud 
noise; the animal appears as if strangled and often falls exhausted. 
When the tumor is coughed out of the larynx the animal regains quickly 
and soon appears as if nothing was ailing. These sudden attacks and 
quick recoveries should lead to a detection of the trouble. The exami- 
nation must be made by holding the auimaPs mouth open with a balling 
iron or speculum and running the hand back into the mouth. If the 
tumor is within reach it must be removed with forceps by torsion, and 
the hemorrhage controlled as before advised. 

BLEEDING FROM THE NOSE. 

This often occurs during the course of certain diseases, viz., influenza, 
bronchitis, purpura hemorrhagica, glanders, etc. But it also occurs 
independent of other affections; and, as before mentioned, is a symptom 
of polypus or tumor in the nose. 

Injuries to the head, exertion, violent sneezing — causing a rupture 
of a small blood-vessel — also induce it. The bleeding is almost inva- 
riably from one nostril only, and is never very serious. The blood 
escapes in drops (very seldom in a stream), and is never frothy as when 



96 

the hemorrhage is from the lungs. (See Bleeding from the lungs.) In 
most cases, bathing the head and washing out the nostril with cold 
water is all that is necessary. If the cause is known you will be guided 
according to circumstances. If the bleeding continues, pour ice-cold 
water over the face, between the eyes and down over the nasal cham- 
bers. A bag containing ice in small pieces applied to the head is often 
efficient. If in spite of these measures the hemorrhage continues, try 
plugging the nostrils with cotton, tow, or oakum. Tie a string around 
the plug before it is pushed up into the nostril, so that it can be safely 
withdrawn after four or five hours. If both nostrils are bleeding plug 
only one nostril at a time. If the hemorrhage is profuse and persist- 
ent give a drench composed of 1 dram of acetate of lead dissolved in a 
pint of water; or 1 dram gallic acid dissolved in a pint of water may be 
tried. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE PHARYNX. 

As already suited, the pharynx is common to the functions of both 
respiration and alimentation. From this organ the air passes into the 
larynx and thence onward to the lungs. In the posterior part of the 
pharynx is the sup erior extremity of the gullet, the canal through 
which the food and water pass to the stomach. Inflammation of the 
pharynx is a complication of other diseases, viz., influenza, strangles, 
etc., and is probably always, more or less, complicated with inflamma- 
tion of the larynx. That it may exist as an independent affection there 
is no reason to doubt, but so closely do the symptoms resemble those 
of laryngitis, and as the treatment is the same as for the latter disease, 
it is unnecessary to give it further consideration in a separate article. 

SORE THROAT — LARYNGITIS. 

The larynx is situated in the space between the lower jaw bones just 
back of the root of the tongue, and is retained in this position by the 
windpipe, muscles, and bones to which it is attached. It may be con- 
sidered as a box (somewhat depressed on each side), composed xninci- 
pally of cartilages and small muscles, and lined on the inside with a 
continuation of the respiratory mucous membrane. Posteriorly it opens 
into and is continuous with the windpipe. It is the organ of the voice, 
the vocal cords being situated within it ; but in the horse this function 
is of little or no consequence. It dilates and contracts to a certain ex- 
tent like the nostrils, thus regulating the volume of air passing through 
it. The mucous membrane lining it internally is so highly sensitive 
that if the smallest particle of food happens to drop into it from the 
pharynx the muscles instantly contract and violent coughing ensues, 
which is continued until the source of irritation is ejected. This is a 
wise provision of nature to prevent foreign substances gaining access 
to the lungs. That projection called Adam's apple in the neck of man 
is the prominent part of one of the cartilages forming the larynx. 



97 

Inflammation of the larynx is a serions and sometimes a fatal disease, 
and, as before stated, is usually complicated with inflammation of the 
pharynx, constituting what is popularly known as "sore throat." 

Symptoms. — About the first symptom noticed is the cough, followed 
by a difficulty in swallowing," which may be due to the soreness of the 
membrane of the pharynx, over which the food or water must pass, or 
to the pain caused by the contraction of the muscles necessary to impel 
the food or water onward to the gullet; or this same contraction of the 
muscles may cause a pressure on the larynx and produce the pain. In 
many instances the difficulty in swallowing is so great that the water, 
and in some cases the food, is returned through the nose. The mouth 
is hot, and saliva dribbles from it. The glands between the lower jaw 
bones and below the ears may be swollen. Pressure on the larynx 
induces a violent fit of coughing. The cough is very characteristic; it 
is easily seen that the animal is "coughing at his throat." The heart 
is more or less "poked oat," and has the appearance of being stiffly 
carried. The membrane in the nose becomes red. A discharge from 
the nostrils soon appears. As the disease advances, the breathing may 
assume a more or less noisy character; sometimes a harsh rasping snore 
is emitted with every respiration, the breathing becomes hurried, and 
occasionally the animal seems threatened with suffocation. 

Treatment— In all cases steam the nostrils as advised for cold in the 
head. In bad cases cause the steam to be inhaled continuously for 
hours, until relief is afforded. Have a fresh bucketful of boiling water 
every fifteen or twenty minutes. In each bucketful of water put a table- 
spoonful of oil of turpentine, which will be carried along with the steam 
to the affected parts and have a beneficial effect. In mild cases steam- 
ing the nostrils five, six, or seven times a day will suffice. 

The animal should be placed in a comfortable, dry stall (a box-stall 
preferred), but should have a pure atmosphere to breathe. The body 
should be blanketed, and bandages applied to the legs. The diet should 
consist of soft food — bran mashes, scalded oats, linseed gruel, and, best 
of all, grass, if in season, which should be carried to him as soon as cut, 
and a fresh supply offered often. The manger or trough should not be 
too high nor too low, but a temporary one should be constructed at 
about the height he carries his head. Having to reach too high or too 
low may cause so much pain that the animal would rather forego satis- 
fying what little appetite he might have, than inflict pain by craning 
his head for food or water. A supply of fresh water should be before 
him all the time; he will not drink too much, nor will the cold water 
hurt him. Constipation (if present) must be relieved by enemas of 
warm water, administered three or four times during the twenty-four 
hours. 

A liniment composed of 2 ounces of olive oil and 1 ounce each of solu- 
tion of ammonia and tincture of cantharides, well shaken together 
should be thoroughly rubbed in about the throat from ear to ear, and 
11035 7 



98 

about 6 inches down over the windpipe and in the space between the 
lower jaws. This liniment should be applied once a day for two or 
three days. 

When the animal can swallow without much difficulty, give the fol- 
lowing preparation : Fluid extract hyoscyamus 1 dram, powdered chlo- 
rate potassium 2 drams, simple sirup or molasses 2 ounces. Mix all 
together and drench very carefully. Repeat the dose every six hours. 

If the animal is breathing with great difficulty do not attempt to 
drench him, but persevere in steaming the nostrils, and dissolve 2 
drams of chlorate of potassium in every gallon of water he will drink ; 
even if he can not swallow much of it (and even if it is returned through 
the nostrils), it will be of some benefit as a gargle to the pharynx. 

When the breathing begins to be loud great relief is afforded in some 
cases by giving a drench composed of 2 drams of fluid extract of jab- 
orandi in half a pint of water. If benefit is derived, this drench may 
be repeated four or five hours after the first dose is given. It will 
cause a free flow of saliva from the mouth within thirty minutes. 

In urgent cases, when suffocation seems inevitable, the operation of 
tracheotomy must be performed. It must be admitted that this oper- 
ation appears to be (to the non-professional) a very formidable one, but 
as it is certainly a means of saving life where all other measures have 
failed, it is the duty of the writer to describe it. To describe this 
operation in words that would make it comprehensible to the general 
reader is a much more difficult task than performing the operation, which 
in the hands of the expert is one of the simplest, and attended with 
less danger (from the operation itself) than any of the special operations 
on organs. 

The operator should be provided with a tracheotomy tube (to be 
purchased from any veterinary instrument maker) and a sharp knife, a 
sponge, and a bucket of clean cold water. The place to be selected for 
opening the windpipe is that part which is found, upon examination, 
to be least covered with muscles. Run your hand down the front part 
of the windpipe and you may easily detect the rings of cartilage of 
which it is composed ; about 5 or 6 inches below the throat it will be 
the most plainly felt. Right here, then, is the place to cut through. 
Have an assistant hold the animal's head still; no necessity of putting 
a twitch on the nose. Grasp your knife firmly in the right hand, select 
the spot to cut, and cut. Make the cut from above to below directly on 
the median line on the anterior surface of the windpipe. Do not 
attempt to dissect your way in, that is too slow, it annoys the horse 
and makes him restless, and besides it gives a novice time to become 
nervous. Make the cut about 2 inches long in the windpipe; this 
necessitates cutting three or four rings. One bold, nervy stroke is 
usually sufficient, but if it is necessary to make several other cuts to 
finish the operation do not hesitate. Your intention must be to make 
a hole in the windpipe sufficiently large to admit the tracheotomy tube, 



99 

and you have not accomplished your purpose until you have done so. 
It is quickly manifested when the windpipe is severed, the hot air 
rushes out, and when air is taken in it is sucked in with a noise. A 
slight hemorrhage may result (it never amounts to much), which is 
easily controlled by washing the wound with a sponge and cold water ; 
do not get any of the water in the windpipe. Do not neglect to instruct 
your assistant to hold the head down immediately after the operation, 
so that the neck will be in a horizontal line. This will prevent the 
blood getting into the windpipe and allow it to drop directly on the 
ground. If you have the self- adjustable tube, it retains its place in 
the wound without further trouble after it is inserted. The other kind 
requires to be secured in position by means of two tapes or strings 
tied around the neck. After the hemorrhage is somewhat abated 
sponge the blood away and see that the tube is thoroughly clean, then 
insert it, directing the tube downwards towards the lungs. To insure 
the tube being clean, it is best to keep it immersed in a solution of 1 
ounce of carbolic acid in 20 ounces of water for about thirty minutes 
previous to inserting it in the windpipe. 

The immediate relief this operation affords is wonderful to behold. 
The animal, a few minutes before on the verge of death from suffoca- 
tion, emittiug a loud wheezing sound with every breath; with haggard 
countenance, body swaying, pawing, gasping, fighting for breath, is 
now breathing trauquilly, and ten to one is nosing about the stall in 
search of something to eat. 

The tube should be removed once a day and cleaned with the carbolic 
acid solution (1 to 20), and the discharge washed away from the wound 
with a solution of carbolic acid, 1 part to 40 parts water. Several times 
a day the hand should be held over the opening in the tube to test the 
animal's ability to breathe through the nostrils, and as soon as it is 
demonstrated that breathing can be performed in the natural way the 
tube should be removed, the wound thoroughly cleansed with the car- 
bolic acid solution (1 to 40), and closed by inserting four or five stitches 
through the shin and muscle. Do not include the cartilages of the wind- 
pipe in the stitches. Apply the carbolic acid solution to the wound 
three or four times a day until healed. When the tube is removed to 
clean it the lips of the wound may be pressed together to ascertain 
whether or not the horse can breathe through the larynx. The use of 
the tube should be discontinued as soon as possible. 

It is true that tracheotomy tubes are seldom to be found on farms, 
and especially when most urgently required. In such instances there 
is nothing left to be done but, with a strong needle, pass a wax end or 
other strong string through each side of the wound, including the car- 
tilage of the windpipe, and keep the wound open by tying the strings 
over the neck. The operation of tracheotomy is not always successful 
in saving the animal's life, and the principal reason of this is, that it is 
deferred too long and the animal is beyond recovery before it is at' 
tempted. 



100 

During the time the tube is used the other treatment advised must 
uot be neglected. After a few days the discharge from the nostrils be- 
comes thicker and more profuse. This is a good symptom aud signi- 
fies that the acute stage has passed. At any time during the attack, 
if the horse becomes weak, give the following drench every four or five 
hours: Spirits of nitrous ether, 2 ounces; rectified spirits, 2 ounces; 
water, 1 pint. When the power of swallowing is regained and the pro- 
fuse discharge of thick, yellowish- white matter from the nostrils an- 
nounces the fact of the convalescing stage, administer the following : 
Tincture of the perchloride of iron, 1 ounce ; tincture of gentian, 2 ounces; 
water, 1 pint. This should be given every morning and evening for 
about a week or ten days. Good nutritive food must now be given — 
hay, oats, and corn. Do not be in a hurry to put the animal back to 
work, but give plenty of time for a complete recovery. Gentle and 
gradually increasing exercise maybe given as soon as the horse is able 
to stand it. 

If abscesses form in connection with the disease they must be opened 
to allow the escape of pus, but do not rashly plunge a knife into swol- 
len glands ; wait until you are certain the swelling contains pus. The 
formation of pus may be encouraged by the constant application of 
poultices for hours at a time. The best poultice for the purpose is 
made of linseed meal, with sufficient hot water to make a thick paste. 
If the glands remain swollen for some time after the attack, rub well 
over them an application of the following : Biniodide of mercury, 1 
dram ; lard, 1 ounce ; mix well. This may be applied once every day 
until the part is blistered. 

Sore throat is also a symptom of other diseases, such as influenza, 
strangles, purpura hemorrhagica, etc., which diseases may be consulted 
under their proper headings. 

After a severe attack of inflammation of the larynx the mucous mem- 
brane may be left in a thickened condition, or an ulceration of the part 
may ensue, either of which are liable to produce a chronic cough. For 
the ulceration it is useless to prescribe, because it can neither be diag- 
nosed ndr topically treated by the non-professional. 

If a chronic cough remains after all the other symptoms have disap- 
peared, it is advisable to give 1 dram of iodide of potassium dissolved 
in a bucketful of drinking water one hour before feeding, three times a 
day, for a month if necessary. Also rub in well the preparation of 
iodide of mercury (as advised for the swollen glands) about the throat, 
from ear to ear, and in the space between the lower jaw bones. The 
application may be repeated every third day until the part is blistered. 

SPASM OF THE LARYNX. 

This has been described by some authorities. The symptoms given 
are : Sudden seizure by a violent fit of coughing; the horse may reel 
and fall, and after a few minutes recover, and be as well as ever. The 



101 

treatment recommended is : Give a pint of linseed oil and after it lias 
operated administer 3 drams of bromide of potassium three times a clay, 
dissolved in the drinking water, or give as a drench in about a half 
pint of water, for a week. Then give a dram of powdered nux vomica 
(either on the food or shaken with water as a drench) once a day for 
a few weeks. 

CROUP AND DIPHTHERIA. 

Both of these diseases, it is claimed, affect the horse. But such 
cases must be rare, as veterinarians of extended experience have failed 
to recognize a single case in their practice. The symptoms are so much 
like those of inflammation of the larynx that it would be impossible 
for the general reader to discriminate between them. 

ROARING. 

Horses that are affected with a chronic disease that causes a loud 
unnatural noise in breathing are called " roarers." This class does not 
include those affected with severe sore throat, as in these cases the 
breathing is noisy only during the attack of the acute disease. 

Boariug is caused by an obstruction to the free passage of the air in 
some part of the respiratory tract. Nasal polypi, thickening of the 
membrane, pharyngeal polypi, deformed bones, paralysis of the wing 
of the nostril, etc., are occasional causes. The noisy breathing of horses 
after having been idle and put to sudden exertion is not due to any dis- 
ease, and is only temporary. Very often a nervous, excitable horse will 
make a noise for a short time when started off, generally caused by the 
cramped position in which the head and neck are forced, in order to hold 
him back. 

Many other causes may occasion temporary, intermitting or perma- 
nent noisy respiration, but after all other causes are enumerated it will 
be found that more than nine out of ten cases of chronic roaring are 
caused by paralysis of the muscles of the larynx ; and almost invariably 
it is the muscles of the left side of the larynx that are affected. 

In chronic roaring the noise is made when the air is drawn into the 
lungs; and only when the disease is far advanced is a sound produced 
when the air is expelled, and even then it is not near so loud as during 
inspiration. 

In a normal condition the muscles dilate the aperture of the larynx 
by moving outward the cartilage and vocal cord, allowing a sufficient 
volume of air to rush through. But when the muscles are paralyzed, 
the cartilage and vocal cord that are normally controlled by the af- 
fected muscles remain stationary : therefore when the air rushes in it 
meets this obstruction, and the noise is produced. When the air is ex- 
pelled from the lungs its very force pushes the cartilage and vocal cords 
out, and consequently noise is not always produced in the expiratory 
act. 



102 

The paralysis of tbe muscles is due to derangement of the nerve that 
supplies them with energy. The muscles of hoth sides are not supplied 
by the same nerve; there is a right and a left nerve, each supplying its 
respective side. The reason why the muscles on the left side are the 
ones usually paralyzed is owing to the difference in the anatomical 
arrangement of the nerves. The left nerve is much longer and more 
exposed to interference than the right nerve. This pair of nerves is 
given off from its parent trunks (the pneumogastrics) after the latter 
enter the chest, and consequently they are called the recurrent laryngeal 
nerves, on account of having to recur to the larynx. 

In chronic roaring there is no evidence of any disease of the larynx, 
other than the wasted condition of the muscles in question. The dis- 
ease of the nerve is generally located far from the larynx. Disease of 
parts contiguous to the nerve along any part of its course may interfere 
with its proper function. It is not really necessary for the nerve itself 
to be the seat of disease ; pressure upon it is sufficient; the pressure of 
a tumor on the nerve is a common cause. Disease of lymphatic glands 
within the chest through which the nerve passes on its way back to the 
larynx is the most frequent interruption of nervous supply, and conse- 
quently roaring. When roaring becomes confirmed medical treatment 
is entirely useless, as it is impossible to restore the wasted muscle and 
at the same time remove the cause of the interruption of the nervous 
supply. Before the disease becomes permanent it may be benefited by 
a course of iodide of potassium, when it is caused by disease of the 
lymphatic glands. Electricity has been used with indifferent success. 
Blistering or firing over the larynx is of course not worthy of trial if 
the disease is due to interference with the nerve supply. The adminis- 
tration of strychnia (nux vomica) on the ground that it is a nerve tonic, 
with the view of stimulating the affected muscles, is treating only the 
result of the disease without considering the cause, and is therefore use- 
less. The operation of extirpating the collapsed cartilage and vocal cord 
is believed to be the only relief, and as this operation is critical and can 
only be performed by the skillful veterinarian, it will not be described 
here. 

From the foregoing description of the disease it will be seen that the 
name "roaring," by which the disease is generally known, is only a 
symptom and not the disease. Chronic roaring is also in many cases 
accompanied by a cough. The best way to test whether a horse is a 
"roarer" is to either make him pull a load rapidly up a hill or over a 
sandy road or soft ground; or if he is a saddle horse gallop him up a 
hill. The object is to make him exert himself. Some horses require a 
great deal more exertion than others before the characteristic sound is 
emitted. The greater the distance he is forced the more he will appear 
exhausted if he is a roarer; in bad cases the animal becomes utterly 
exhausted, the breathing is rapid and difficult, the nostrils dilate to the 
fullest extent, and the animal appears as if suffocation was imminent. 



103 

An animal that is a roarer should not be used for breeding purposes, 
no matter bow valuable the stock. The taint is transmissible in many 
instances, and there is not the least doubt in the minds of those who 
know best that the offspring whose sire or dam is a roarer is born with 
an hereditary predisposition to the affection. 

Grunting. — A common test used by veterinarians when examining 
"the wind" of a horse is to see if he is a "grunter." This is a sound 
emitted during expiration when the animal is suddenly moved, or start- 
led, or struck at. If he grunts he is further tested for roaring. Grunters 
are not always roarers, but as it is a common thing for a roarer to grunt 
such an animal must be looked upon with suspicion until he is thor- 
oughly tried by pulling a load or galloped up a hill. The test should 
be a severe one. Horses suffering with pleurisy, pleurodynia, or rheu- 
matism, and other affections accompanied with much pain, will grunt 
when moved, or when the pain is aggravated, but grunting under these 
circumstances does not justify the term of "grunter" being applied to 
the horse, as the grunting ceases when the animal recovers from the 
disease that causes the pain. 

High blowing. — This term is applied to a noisy breathing made by 
some horses. It is distinctly a nasal sound, and must not be con- 
founded with "roaring." The sound is produced by the action of the 
nostrils. It is a habit and not an unsoundness. Contrary to roaring, 
when the animal is put to severe exertion the sound ceases. An animal 
that emits this sound is called a " high-blower." Some horses have, 
naturally, very narrow nasal openings, and they may emit sounds 
louder than usual in their breathing when exercised. 

Whistling is only one of the variations of the sound emitted by a 
horse called a " roarer," and therefore needs no further notice, except 
to remind the reader that a whistling sound may be produced during 
an attack of severe sore throat or inflammation of the larynx, which 
passes away with the disease that causes it. 

Thick wind. — This is another superfluous term applied to a symptom. 
The great majority of horses called " thick- winded" belong either in the 
class called " roarers," or are affected with " heaves," and therefore no 
separate classification is needed. Mares heavy with foal, horses exces- 
sively fat, and those that have not been exercised for so long that the 
muscular system has become unfit for work; horses with large bellies, 
and, especially, when the stomach is loaded with coarse, fibrous, or 
bulky food, emit a louder sound than natural in their breathing, and 
are called " thick- winded." The treatment in such cases is obvious : 
" Eemove the cause and the effect will cease." While it must be ad- 
mitted that " thickening of the mucous membrane of the finer bronchial 
tubes and air cells may cause the breathing called thick- winded," it 
must at the same time be admitted that there is no symptom by which 
the condition can be distinguished from what will hereafter be described 
as " heaves," by the general reader, at least. 



104 

THE WINDPIPE. 

The windpipe, or trachea, as it is technically called, is the flexible 
tube that extends from the larynx which it succeeds at the throat 
to above the base of the heart in the chest, where it terminates by 
dividing into the right and left bronchi, the tubes going to the right 
and left lung respectively. The windpipe is composed of about fifty 
incomplete rings of cartilage united by ligaments. A muscular layer 
is situated on the superior surface of the rings. Internally the tube 
is lined with a continuation of the mucous membrane that lines the 
entire respiratory tract, which here has very little sensibility in 
contrast to that lining the larynx, which is endowed with exquisite 
sensitiveness. 

The windpipe is not subject to any special disease, but is more or 
less affected during laryngitis (sore throat), influenza, bronchitis, etc., 
and requires no special treatment. The membrane may be left in a 
thickened condition after these attacks. One or more of the rings 
may be accidentally fractured, or the tube may be distorted or mal- 
formed, the result of violent injury. After the operation of trache- 
otomy it is not uncommon to find a tumor or malformation as a re- 
sult or sequel of the operation. In passing over this section atten- 
tion is merely called to these defects, as they require no particular 
attention in the way of treatment. However, it may be stated that 
any one of the before- mentioned conditions may constitute one of the 
causes of noisy respiration described as " roaring." 

GUTTURAL POUCHES. 

These two sacks are not included in the organs of respiration, but 
sometimes pus collects in them to an extent that considerably inter- 
feres with respiration. They are in close proximity to the pharynx and 
larynx, and when filled with matter the functions of the last-named or- 
gans can not be properly performed. They are situated above the 
throat, and communicate with the pharynx, as well as with the cavity 
of the tympanum of the ear. They are peculiar to solipeds. They 
contain air, except when filled with pus. Their function is unknown. 

One or both guttural pouches may contain pus. The symptoms are: 
Swelling on the side below the ear and an intermittent discharge of 
matter from one or both nostrils, especially when the head is depressed. 

The swelling is soft, and, if pressed upon, matter will escape from 
the nose if the head is depressed. As before mentioned, these pouches 
communicate with the pharynx, and through this small opening matter 
may escape. A recovery is probable if the animal is turned out to 
graze, or if he is fed from the ground, as the dependent position of the 
head favors the escape of matter from the pouches. In addition to 
this, give the tonics recommended for nasal gleet. If this treatment 
fails an operation must be performed, which should not be attempted 
by any one unacquainted with the anatomy of the part. 



105 

METHODS OF EXAMINATION FOR DISEASES HAVING THEIR SEAT 

WITHIN THE CHEST. 

To lay down a set of rules for the guidance of the general reader In 
discriminating between the different affections of the organs of respira- 
tion situated in the thoracic cavity, is a task hard to accomplish. In 
the first place, it is presumed that the reader has no knowledge what- 
ever of the anatomical arrangement, and probably but a meager idea 
of the physiology of the organs, therefore the use of technical language, 
which would make the task a simple one, is out of the question. And, 
to one who scarcely understands the signs and laws of health, it is dif- 
ficult to convey in comprehensive language, in an article like this, an 
adequate idea of the great importance attached to signs or symptoms 
of disease. Then, again, the methods used for the detection of symp- 
toms not visible are such as require special cultivation of the particu- 
lar senses brought into play. It will be the endeavor of the writer, 
when describing the symptoms of each particular disease, to do so in 
such manner that a serious mistake should not be made; but for the 
benefit of those who may desire a more thorough understanding of the 
subject a brief review of the various methods employed and an ex- 
planation of certain symptoms will be given here. 

Pulse. — By the pulse is meant the beating of the arteries, which fol- 
lows each contraction of the heart. The artery usually selected iu the 
horse for " taking the pulse" is the submaxillary where it winds around 
the lower jaw-bone. On the inner side of the jaw-bone the artery may 
be readily felt and pressed against the bone, hence its adaptability for 
the purpose of detecting each peculiarity. The number of beats in a 
minute, the regularity, the irregularity, the strength or feebleness, and 
other peculiarities are principally due to the action of the heart. 

In the healthy horse the average number of beats in a minute is 
about forty; but in different horses the number may vary from thirty- 
five to forty-five and still be consistent with health. The breed and 
temperament of an animal has much to do with the number of pulsa- 
tions. In a thoroughbred the number of beats in a given time is gen- 
erally greater than in a coarse-bred horse. The pulse is less frequent 
in a dull- plethoric animal than in an excitable one. The state of the 
pulse should be taken when the animal is quiet and at rest. Work, 
exercise, and excitement increase the number of pulsations. If the 
pulse of a horse be taken while standing quietly in the stable it will be 
found less frequent than when he is at pasture. 

It is not within the scope of a work of this kind to give all the pecu- 
liarities of the pulse; only a few of the most important will be noticed. 
It should, however, be stated that if the reader would learn something 
of the pulse in disease he must first become acquainted with the pulse 
in health; he must know the natural peculiarities before he can detect 
the deviations caused by disease. 



106 

By a, frequent pulse is meant an increased number of beats in a given 
time. An infrequent pulse means the reverse. A quick pulse refers to 
the time occupied by the individual pulsation. The beat may strike 
the finger either quickly or slowly. Hence the pulse may beat forty 
quick pulsations or forty slow pulsations in a minute. 

The pulse is called intermitting when the beat now and then is omitted. 
The omission of the beat may be at the end of a given number of pulsa- 
tions, when it is termed regularly intermittent, or it may be irregularly 
intermittent. 

A large pulse means that the volume is larger than usual, and a small 
pulse means the opposite. When the artery is easily compressed and 
conveys the feeling of emptiness it is called & feeble pulse. When a feel- 
ing of hardness and resistance is conveyed to the finger it is termed a 
hard pulse. A double pulse is when the beat seems to give two rapid 
beats at once. Besides other peculiarities the pulse may include the 
character of two or more of the foregoing classes. 

In fever the pulse is modified, both as regards frequency and other 
deviations from the normal standard. When a horse is quietly stand- 
ing at rest, if the pulse beats fifty-five or more in a minute, fever is 
present. 

Temperature. — The temperature of the healthy horse ranges from 
about 99£° to 101J° F. The average may be placed at about 100° P. 
The temperature is subject to slight alterations by certain influences. 
A high surrounding temperature increases the animal temperature, and 
cold the reverse. Exercise increases it. Mares have a higher tempera- 
ture than males. Drinking cold water lowers the animal temperature. 
It is higher in the young than in the old. The process of digestion in- 
creases the temperature. 

The most accurate method of taking the temperature is by introduc- 
ing a registered clinical thermometer into the rectum. This instrument 
can be purchased from auy dealer in surgical instruments. Even the 
best made may vary somewhat from being exact, but one sufficiently 
true for the x>urpose is easily obtained. It should be self-registering. 
The thermometer should remain in the gut for about three or four 
minutes. Before inserting it you should be sure the mercury is below 
the minimum temperature. The end containing the mercury should be 
pushed in gently, leaving only sufficient outside to take hold of when 
you desire to withdraw it. 

In describing the symptoms of "cold in the head" the method of as- 
certaining an increase of temperature by placing the finger in the mouth 
is referred to. The method requires considerable practice and a deli- 
cacy of touch to become expert, but, when a thermometer is not at 
hand, a little practice will enable a person of ordinary intelligence to 
detect the existence or absence of fever. 

Respiration. — In health, standing still, the horse breathes from twelve 
to fifteen times a minute ; work or excitement increases the number of 
respirations. 



107 

The character of the breathing is changed by disease. Quick breath- 
ing refers to an increased number of respirations, which may be due to 
disease or to simple exercise. Difficult breathing is always associated 
with something abnormal, and is often a perfect guide to the trouble. 
Stertorous breathing must not be confounded with the difficult breath- 
ing or noisy respiration of sore throat, roaring, etc. By stertorous 
breathing is meant what, in the human being, is called snoring, which 
is due to a relaxation of the palate and not to disease of the part. In 
the horse it is generally associated with brain disease, when the con- 
sequent derangement of the nervous functions causes the relaxation of 
the soft palate. Abdominal breathing is when the ribs are kept as 
nearly stationary as possible, and the abdominal muscles assist to a 
much greater extent than natural in respiration ; the abdomen is seen 
to work like a bellows. In pleurisy, owing to the pain caused by mov- 
ing the ribs, this kind of breathing is always present. Thoracic breath- 
ing is the opposite of abdominal breathing — that is, the ribs rise and 
fall more than usual, while the abdominal muscles remain fixed ; this 
is due to abdominal pain, such as peritonitis, etc. Irregular breathing 
is exemplified in "heaves," and often during the critical stages of acute 
diseases. 

Secretions. — In the first stages of inflammatory disease these functions 
are noticed with benefit. For instance, in the common cold at the be- 
ginning of the attack the membrane within the nostrils is dry and con- 
gested, which state gradually gives way to a watery discharge, soon 
followed by a thick mucus. In pleurisy the surfaces are at first dry, 
which can be easily ascertained by placing the ear against the chest 
over the affected part, when the dry surfaces of the pleuraB will be heard 
rubbing against each other, producing a sound likened to that of rub- 
bing two pieces of paper one against the other. In diseases of the 
respiratory organs the bowels are usually constipated, and the urine 
becomes less in quantity and of a higher color. The skin is usually hot 
and dry, but there are instances when perspiration is profuse. At the 
beginning of the attack there is generally a chill (in most instances 
unnoticed by the attendant), caused by the contraction of the blood- 
vessels in the skin driving the blood internally. 

Cough. — This is usually a violent effort to remove some source of ir- 
ritation in the respiratory tract. The dry cough is heard during the 
first stages of disease of the respiratory organs. In pleurisy the cough 
is a dry one. The cough in pleurisy is noticeable on account of the 
apparent effort of the animal to suppress it. The moist cough is heard 
when the secretions (following a dry stage) are re-established. Cough 
is but a symptom — the effect of a disease. Eoaring, heaves, pleurisy, 
pneumonia, etc., have a cough peculiar to each affection. 

Auscultation. — This term is applied to the method of detecting dis- 
eases of the organs within the chest by listening to the sounds. 
Generally the ear is placed directly against the part, but occasionally 



108 

an instrument called the stethoscope is employed. The former is the 
best mode for horses. In order to gain any satisfaction or knowledge 
by the practice of this method the reader must first become familiar 
with the sounds in a healthy horse, which can only be learned by prac- 
tice. Much more practice and knowledge are then required to discrimi- 
nate properly between abnormal sounds and their significance. 

Percussion. — As applied to the practice of medicine this term refers 
to the act of striking on some part of the body to determine the condi- 
tionof the internal organs by the sound elicited. If a wall of acavity is 
struck the sound is easily distinguished from that emitted when a solid 
substance is knocked on. When percussing the chest, the ribs are 
struck with the tips of the fingers and thumb held together, or with 
the knuckles. An instrument called the pleximeter is sometimes laid 
against the part, to strike on. If the surface is soft over the part to be 
percussed, the left hand is pressed against it firmly, and the middle fin- 
ger of it struck with the ends of the fingers of the right hand to bring 
out the sound. This method of examination also requires much prac- 
tice on the healthy as well as the unhealthy animal. 

BRONCHITIS. 

As previously described, the windpipe terminates by dividing into 
the right and left bronchi, running to the right and left lung, respect- 
ively. After reaching the lungs these tubes divide into innumerable 
branches, gradully decreasing in size, which penetrate all parts of the 
lungs, ultimately terminating in the air-cells. The bronchial tubes are 
formed much the same as the windpipe, consisting of a base of carti- 
laginous rings with a layer of fibrous and muscular tissue, and lined in- 
ternally with a continuation of the respiratory mucous membrane. 

Bronchitis is an inflammation of the bronchial tubes. The mucous 
membrane alone may be affected, or the inflammation may involve the 
whole tube. Bronchitis affecting the larger tubes is less serious than 
when the smaller are involved. The disease may be either acute or 
chronic. The causes are generally much the same as for other diseases 
of the respiratory organs, noticed in the beginning of this article. The 
special causes are: The inhalation of irritating gases and smoke, and 
fluids or solids gaining access to the parts. Bronchitis is occasionally 
associated with influenza and other specific fevers. It also supervenes 
on common cold or sore throat. 

Symptoms. — The animal appears dull ; the appetite is partially or 
wholly lost; the head hangs; the breathing is very much quickened; 
the cough, at first dry, and having somewhat the character of a "bark- 
ing cough," is succeeded in a few days by a moist rattling cough ; the 
mouth is hot; the visible membranes in the nose are red; the pulse is 
frequent, and during the first stage is hard and quick, but as the dis- 
ease advances becomes smaller and more frequent. After a few days a 
whitish discharge from the nostrils ensues ; sometimes this discharge 



109 

is tinged with blood, and occasionally it may be of a brownish or rusty 
color. By auscultation or placing the ear to the sides of the chest un- 
natural sounds can now be heard. The air passing over the inflamed 
surface causes a hissing or wheezing sound when the small tubes are 
affected, and a hoarse, cooing, or snoring sound when the larger tubes 
are involved. After one or two days the dry stage of the disease is 
succeeded by a moist state of the membrane. The ear now detects a 
different sound, caused by the bursting of the bubbles as the air passes 
through the fluid, which is the exudate of inflammation and the aug- 
mented mucous secretions of the membrane. The mucus may be secreted 
in great abundance, which, by blocking up the tubes, may cause a col- 
lapse of a large extent of breathing surface. Usually the mucus is ex- 
pectorated, that is, discharged through the nose. The matter is coughed 
up, and when it reaches the larynx much of it may be swallowed, or, as 
the case may be, discharged from the nostrils. The horse can not spit 
like the human being, nor does the matter coughed up gain access to 
the mouth. In serious cases all the symptoms become aggravated. 
The breathing is labored, short, quick, but not painful. It is both 
thoracic and abdominal. The ribs rise and fall much more than nat- 
ural. This fact alone is enough to exclude the idea that the animal may 
be affected with pleurisy, because, in pleurisy, the ribs are as nearly 
fixed as in the power of the animal to do so, and the breathing accom- 
plished to a great extent by aid of the abdominal muscles. The horse 
persists in standing throughout the attack. He prefers to stand with 
head to a door or window to gain all the fresh air possible, but may 
occasionally wander listlessly about the stall if not tied. The bowels 
most likely are constipated; the dung is covered with slimy mucus. 
This appearance of the dung is usually defined by stablemen to be 
"cold on the bowels," or "dung covered with cold." The urine is 
decreased in quantity and darker in color than usual. The animal 
shows more or less thirst; in some cases the mouth is full of saliva. 
The discharge from the nose increases in quantity as the disease ad- 
vances and inflammation subsides. This is rather a good symptom, as it 
shows one stage has passed. The discharge then gradually decreases, 
the cough becomes less rasping but of more frequent occurrence until 
it gradually disappears with the return of health. 

Bronchitis, affecting the smaller tubes, is one of the most fatal 
diseases, while that of the larger tubes is never very serious. It must 
be stated, however, that it is an exceedingly difficult matter for a non- 
expert to discriminate between the two forms, and further, it may as 
well be said here that the non-expert will have difficulty in discrimi- 
nating between bronchitis and pneumonia. Therefore the writer will 
endeavor to point out a course of treatment in each disease that will 
positively benefit either affection if the reader happens to be mistaken 
in his diagnosis. The critic may say that this plan is not a truly scien- 
tific method of treating disease. The only reply necessary to be made 



110 

is that this series of articles is intended to be of practical value to the 
horse-owning public, and is in no manner intended as a text-book for 
experts and those already acquainted with the technical literature on 
the subject. Scientific terms which would make the work easy for the 
author would only tend to make it valueless to the general reader. 
Likewise a different prescription for each form and stage of the affec- 
tion would only confuse a person who is unable to appreciate the various 
phases of the disease. 

Treatment. — Of first importance is to insure a pure atmosphere to 
breathe, and next to make the patient's quarters as comfortable as pos- 
sible. A well ventilated box-stall serves best for all purposes. Cover 
the body with a blanket, light or heavy as the season of the year de- 
mands. Hand rub the legs until they are warm, then apply flannel or 
Derby bandages from the hoofs to the knees and hocks. If the legs 
can not be made warm with hand rubbing alone, apply the liniment 
recommended in the treatment of sore throat. Eub in thoroughly and 
then put on the bandages. Also, rub the same liniment well over the 
side of the chest, behind the elbow and shoulder-blade, covering the 
space beginning immediately behind the elbow and shoulder-blade and 
running back about 18 inches, and from the elbow below to within 5 or 
6 inches of the ridge of the backbone above. Eepeat the application 
to the side of the chest about 5 days after the first one is applied. 

Compel the animal to inhale steam as advised for cold in the head. 
In each bucketful of boiling water put a tablespoonful of oil of turpen- 
tine. This medicated vapor coming in direct contact with the inflamed 
bronchial tubes is of much greater benefit than can be imagined by one 
who has not experienced its good effect. In serious cases the steam 
should be inhaled every hour, and in any case the oftener it is done the 
greater will be the beneficial results. Three times a day administer 
the following drench: Solution of the acetate of ammonia, 3 ounces; 
spirits of nitrous ether, 2 ounces ; bicarbonate of potassium, one-half 
ounce; water, 1 pint. Care must be used in drenching. If it greatly 
excites the horse it is best not to push it. If you see that it does harm 
do not persist in making the animal worse. Be satisfied with dissolv- 
ing one-half ounce of bicarbonate of potassium in every bucketful 
of water the animal will drink. It is well to keep a bucketful of 
cold water before the animal all the time. If the horse is prostrated 
and has no appetite give the following drench : Spirits of nitrous ether, 

2 ounces; rectified spirits, 3 ounces; water, 1 pint. Eepeat the dose 
every four or five hours if it appears to benefit. When the horse is 
hard to drench, and if you have some one about who is expert in ad- 
ministering balls, give the following: Pulverized carbonate of ammonia, 

3 drams; linseed meal and molasses sufficient to make the whole into 
a stiff mass ; wrap it with a small piece of tissue paper and it is ready 
to administer. This ball may be repeated every four or five hours. 
When giving the ball care should be taken to prevent its breaking in 



Ill 

the mouth, as in case of such accident it will make the mouth sore, 
which may prevent the animal from eating. If the bowels are consti- 
pated give enemas of warm water. Do not give purgative medicines. 
Do not bleed the animal. Depressing treatment only helps to bring on 
a fatal termination. 

If the animal retains an appetite a soft diet is preferable, such as 
scalded oats, bran mashes, and grass if in season. If he refuses cooked 
food allow in small quantities anything he will eat. Hay, corn, oats, 
bread, apples, carrots may all be tried in turn. Some horses will drink 
sweet milk when they refuse all other kinds of food, and especially is 
this the case if the drinking water is withheld for awhile. One or two 
gallons at a time, four or five times a day, will support life. Bear in 
mind that when the disease is established it will run its course, which 
may be from two to three weeks, or even longer. Good nursing and 
patience are required. 

When the symptoms have abated and nothing remains of the disease 
except the cough and a white discharge from the nostrils, all other 
medicines should be discontinued and a course of tonic treatment pur- 
sued. Give the following mixture: Pulverized sulphate of iron, 3 
ounces; powdered gentian, 8 ounces; mix well together and divide into 
sixteen powders. Give a powder every night and morning mixed with 
bran and oats, if the animal will eat it, or shaken with about a pint of 
water and administered as a drench. 

If the cough remains for a length of time that leads you to think it 
will become chronic, say three or four weeks after the horse is appar- 
ently well, apply the liniment to the throat and down over the wind- 
pipe and over the breast. Bub it in thoroughly once a day until three 
or four applications are made. Also give 1 dram of iodide of potassium 
dissolved in a bucketful of drinking water, one hour before each meal 
for two or three weeks if necessary. Do not put the animal at work too 
soon after recovery. Allow ample time to regain strength. This dis- 
ease is prone to become chronic and may run into an incurable case of 
thick wind. 

It has been stated that it will be a difficult matter for the non-pro- 
fessional to discriminate between bronchitis and pneumonia. In fact 
the two diseases are often associated, constituting broncho-pneumonia; 
therefore, the reader should carefully study the symptoms and treat- 
ment of pneumonia. 

CHRONIC BRONCHITIS. 

This may be due to the same causes as acute bronchitis, or it may 
follow the latter disease. An attack of the chronic form is liable to be 
converted into acute bronchitis by a very slight cause. This chronic 
affection in most instances is associated with thickening of the walls of 
the tubes. Its course is slower, it is less severe, and is not accom- 
panied with as much fever as the acute form. If the animal is exerted 



112 

the breathing becomes quickened and he soon shows signs of exhaus- 
tion. In many instances the animal keeps up strength and appearances 
moderately well, but in other cases the appetite is lost, flesh gradually 
disappears, and the horse becomes emaciated and debilitated. It is ac- 
companied by a cough, which in some cases is a husky, smothered, or 
muffled excuse for a cough, while in other cases the cough is hard and 
clear. A whitish matter is discharged from the nose, which may be 
curdled in some instances. If the ear is placed against the chest be- 
hind the shoulder blade, the rattle of the air passing through the mucus 
can be heard within. It is stated that the right side of the heart may 
become enlarged to such an extent that it is easily felt beating by plac- 
ing the hand against the chest behind the right elbow. 

Treatment. — Generally the horse is kept at work when he is affected 
with this form of bronchial trouble, as the owner says " he has only a 
deep cold. " It is true that some authorities express the opinion that 
work does no harm, but they are mistaken. Eest is necessary, if a cure 
is desired, as even under the most favorable circumstances, a cure is 
difficult to effect. The animal can not stand exertion, and should not 
be compelled to undergo it. Besides, there is a great probability of 
acute bronchitis supervening at any time. 

The animal should have much the same general care and medical 
treatment prescribed for the acute form ; if material benefit has not 
been derived give the following: Powdered nux vomica, 3 ounces; 
powdered arsenic, 70 grains ; powdered sulphate of copper, 3 ounces ; 
mix together and divide into thirty -four powders. Give a powder mixed 
with bran and oats every night and morning. An application of 
mustard applied to the breast is a beneficial adjunct. If all other treat- 
ment fails, try the following combination, recommended by a good au- 
thority: Hydrocyanic acid (Scheele's strength), 20 minims; nitrate of 
potassium, 3 drams ; bicarbonate of soda, 1 ounce ; water, 1 pint. This 
dose should be given every morning and evening for one or two weeks, 
if necessary. 

The diet should be the most nourishing. Bad food is harmful at 
any time, but especially in this disease. Avoid bulky food. Linseed 
mashes, scalded oats, grass and green-blade fodder, if in season, is the 
best diet. 

THE LUNGS. 

The lungs are the essential organs of respiration. They consist of 
two (right and left) spongy masses, commonly called the " lights," 
situated entirely within the thoracic cavity. On account of the space 
taken up by the heart, the left lung is the smaller. Externally, they 
are completely covered by the pleura. The structure of the lung con- 
sists of a light, soft, but very strong and remarkably elastic tissue, 
which can only be torn with difficulty. The lung of the foetus 
which has never respired will sink if placed in water, but after the 



113 

lung has been inflated with air it will float on water so long as healthy. 
This fact is made useful in deciding whether or not an animal was born 
dead or died after its birth. Each lung is divided into a certain num- 
ber of lobes, which are subdivided into numberless lobules (little lobes). 
A little bronchial tube terminates in every one of these small lobules. 
The little tube then divides into minute branches which open into the 
air-cells (pulmonary vesicles) of the lungs. The air-cells are little sacs 
having a diameter varying from one-seventieth to one- two-hundredth 
of an inch ; they have but one opening, the communication with the 
branches of the little bronchial tubes. Small blood-vessels ramify 
in the walls of the air-cells. The walls of the air-cells are extremely 
thin and consist of two layers ; the blood-vessels, being between the 
layers, thus expose a surface to the air in two different cells. The 
air-cells are the consummation of the intricate structures forming the 
respiratory apparatus. They are of prime importance, all the rest be- 
ing complementary. It is within these cells that is accomplished all that 
constitutes the ultimate result of the function of respiration. It is here 
the exchange of gases takes place. As before stated, the walls of the 
cells we very thin ; so, also, are the walls of the blood-vessels. Through 
these walls escapes from the blood the carbonic-acid gas that has been 
absorbed by the blood in its circulation through the different parts of 
the body ; and through these walls is absorbed by the blood, from the 
air in the air-cells, the oxygen gas which is the life-giving element of 
the atmosphere. 

Throughout the substance of the lungs the bronchial tubes terminate 
in the air-cells. Blood-vessels are in every part ', likewise lymphatic 
vessels and nerves, which require no more than mention in this paper. 

To give a rude idea of the arrangement of the respiratory apparatus 
as a whole, we may profitably compare it to a tree, for the want of a 
better illustration. Say that all the respiratory tract from the nasal 
openings back to the pharynx are the roots in the ground ; the larynx 
may be compared to the large part of the trunk just above the earth ; 
the windpipe will represent the body or the bole of the tree ; the right 
and left bronchi may be considered the first two or largest limbs ; 
the bronchial tubes are then comparable to all the rest of the limbs, 
branches and twigs, gradually becoming smaller and branching out 
more frequently, until the smallest twigs terminate by having a leaf 
appended ; and to complete the comparison we may as well say the 
leaf will do to represent the air-cells. Now, imagine all parts in and 
around the limbs, branches, twigs, and leaves filled in with some ma- 
terial (say cotton or tow) and the whole covered over with silk or satin 
to about the beginning of the branches on each of the first two large 
limbs. The cotton or tow represents the lung-tissue and the silk or 
satin covering will represent the pleura. It must be admitted that this 
is rather a rough way to handle such delicate structures, but if the 
reader is possessed of a good imagination he may gain, at least, a com- 
11035- 8 



114 

prehension of the subject that will suffice for the purpose of being bet- 
ter able to locate the various diseases and appreciate the mechanism of 
the respiratory organs in their relations to each other. 

CONGESTION OF THE LUNGS. 

Inflammation of the lungs is always preceded by congestion, or, to 
make it plainer, congestion may be considered as the first stage of in- 
flammation. Congestion is essentially an excess of blood in the vessels 
of the parts affected. Congestion of the lungs in the horse, when it 
exists as an independent affection, is generally caused by overexertion 
when the animal is not in a fit condition to undergo more than moder- 
ate exercise. 

The methods practiced by the trainers of running and trotting horses 
will give an idea of what is termed " putting a horse in condition" to 
stand severe exertion. The animal at first gets walking exercises, then 
after some time he is made to go faster and farther each day; the 
amount of work is daily increased until the horse is said to be " in condi- 
tion." An animal so prepared runs no risk of being affected with con- 
gestion of the lungs if he is otherwise healthy. On the other hand, if 
the horse is kept in the stable for the purpose of laying on fat or for 
want of something to do, the muscular system becomes soft, and the 
horse is not in condition to stand the severe exertion of going fast or 
far, no matter how healthy he may be in other respects. If such a 
horse be given a hard ride or drive, he may start off in high spirits, 
but soon becomes exhausted, and if he is pushed he will slacken his 
pace, show a desire to stop, and may stagger or even fall. Examina- 
tion will show the nostrils dilated, the flanks heaving, the countenance 
haggard, and every other appearance of suffocation. How was this 
brought about! The heart and muscles were not accustomed to the 
sudden and severe strain put upon them; the heart became unable to 
perform its work; the blood accumulated in the vessels of the lungs, 
which eventually became engorged with the stagnated blood, consti- 
tuting congestion of the lungs. 

The animal, after having undergone severe exertion, may not exhibit 
any alarming symptoms until returned to the stable; then he will be 
noticed standing with his head down, legs spread out, the eyes wildly 
staring or dull and sunken. The breathing is very rapid and almost 
gasping, the body is covered with perspiration in most cases, which, 
however, may soon evaporate, leaving the surface of the body and the 
legs and ears cold; the breathing is both abdominal and thoracic; the 
chest rises and falls and the flanks are powerfully brought into action. 
If the pulse can be felt at all it will be found beating very frequently, 
one hundred or more to a minute. The heart may be felt tumultuously 
thumping if the hand is placed against the chest behind the left elbow, 
or it may be scarcely perceptible. The animal may tremble all over the 
body. If the ear is placed against the side of the chest a loud murmur 
will be heard, and perhaps a fine crackling sound. 



115 

No intelligent person should fail to recognize a case of congestion of 
the lungs when brought on by overexertion, as the history of the case is 
sufficient to point out the ailment. The disease may also arise from 
want of sufficient pure air in stables that are badly ventilated. In all 
cases of suffocation the lungs are congested. It is also seen in connec- 
tion with other diseases. 

Treatment. — If the animal is attacked by the disease while on the road 
stop him immediately. Do not attempt to return to the stables. If he 
is in the stable make arrangements at once to insure an unlimited sup- 
ply of pure air. If the weather is warm, out in the open air is the best 
place, but if too cold let him stand with head to the door. By no means 
have him walked, as is sometimes done. Let him stand still ; he has all 
he can do if he obtains sufficient pure air to sustain life. If he is en- 
cumbered with harness or saddle remove it at once and begin rub- 
bing the body with cloths or wisps of hay or straw. This stimulates 
the circulation in the skin, and thus aids in relieving the lungs of the 
extra quantity of blood that is stagnated there. If you have three or 
four assistants let them go to work with enthusiasm, rub the body and 
legs well, until the skin feels natural; rub the legs until they are warm, 
if possible; rub in over the cold part of the legs an application of the 
liniment recommended for the same purpose in the treatment of bron- 
chitis, but do not apply it to the chest. When the circulation is re-es- 
tablished, put bandages on the legs from the hoofs up as far as possible. 
Throw a blanket over the body and let the rubbing be done under the 
blanket. Diffusible stimulants are the medicines indicated. Brandy, 
whisky (or even ale or beer if nothing else is at hand), ether, and tinct- 
ure of arnica are all useful. Two ounces each of spirits of nitrous ether 
and alcohol, given as a drench, diluted with a pint of water, every hour 
until relief is afforded, is among the best of remedies. But if it takes too 
long to obtain this mixture, give a quarter of a pint of whisky in a pint 
of water every hour, or the same quantity of brandy as often, or a quart 
of ale every hour, or an ounce of tincture of arnica in a pint of water 
every hour until five or six doses have been given. If none of these 
remedies are at hand, 2 ounces of oil of turpentine, shaken with a half 
pint of milk, may be given. This will have a beneficial effect until more 
applicable remedies are obtained. A tablespoonful of aqua ammonia 
(hartshorn), diluted with a pint of water and given as a drench every 
hour, has undoubtedly been of great service in saving life when noth- 
ing else could be obtained in time to be used with benefit. If the fore- 
going treatment fails to be followed by a marked improvement after 
seven or eight hours' perseverance, the animal may be bled from the 
jugular vein. Do not take more than 5 or 6 quarts from the vein, and 
do not repeat the bleeding. The blood thus drawn will have a tarry 
appearance. 

When the alarming symptoms have subsided active measures may 
be stopped, but care must be used in the general treatment of the ani- 



116 

mal for several days, for it must be remembered that congestion may 
be followed by pneumonia. The animal should have a comfortable 
stall, where he will not be subjected to draughts or sudden changes of 
temperature ; he should be blanketed and the legs kept bandaged. The 
air should be pure, a plentiful supply of fresh cold water always before 
him, and a diet composed principally of bran mashes, scalded oats, and 
grass, if in season. When ready for use again he should at first receive 
moderate exercise only, which may be daily increased until he may 
safely be put at regular work. 

APOPLEXY OF THE LUNGS. 

This is but another term for congestion of the lungs, and for practi- 
cal x>urposes needs no special description, except to remark that when a 
hemorrhage occurs during the congested state of the lungs the blood 
escapes from the ruptured vessels and extravasates into the lung tissue. 
Such cases are called pulmonary apoplexy, and usually occur during 
the course of some specific disease. 

PNEUMONIA — LUNG FEVER. 

Pneumonia may attack both lungs, but as a general rule one lung 
only is affected, and in the great majority of cases it is the right lung. 
The air-cells are the parts affected principally, but the minute branches 
of the bronchial tubes always, to a greater or less extent, are involved 
in the inflammation. Inflammation of the lungs occurs in three princi- 
pal varieties, but in a work of this kind there is no necessity to dis- 
criminate, and therefore the disease will be described under a common 
head. It already has been mentioned that pneumonia may be compli- 
cated with bronchitis, and it will hereafter be pointed out that it is very 
commonly complicated with pleurisy. In this article the disease will 
be considered mainly as an independent affection, and its complications 
will be more fully described under separate heads. 

The inflammation usually begins in the lower part of the lung and 
extends upwards. The first stage of the disease consists of congestion 
or engorgement of the blood-vessels, and if this condition continues the 
blood exudes from the vessels into the adjacent lung tissue ; if rupture 
of small blood-vessels occurs there will be extravasations of blood in 
the contiguous parts. The fluids thus escaping collect in the air-cells 
and in the minute branches of the little bronchial tubes, and, becoming 
coagulated there, completely block up the cells and exclude the air. 

In this condition the lung is increased in volume and is much heavier, 
and will sink in water. The pleura covering the affected parts is al- 
ways more or less inflamed. A continuance of the foregoiug phenom- 
ena is marked by a further escape of the constituents of the blood, and 
a change in the membrane of the cells, which become swollen. The 
exudate that fills the air-cells and minute bronchial branches undergoes 
disintegration, and is converted into a fatty material. The walls of the 
cells almost invariably remain unaltered. 

It must not be imagined that the foregoing changes take place in. 



117 

a uniform manner. While one portion is only congested another part 
may be undergoing disintegration, while still another part may be 
involved in the exudative stage. 

The usual termination of pneumonia is in resolution, that is, a res- 
toration to health. This is gradually brought about by the exuded 
material contained in the air-cells and lung tissues becoming degen- 
erated into fatty and a mucus-like substance which are removed by 
absorption. The blood vessels return to their natural state and the 
blood circulates in them as before. Much material, the result of the 
inflammatory process, is also gotten rid of by expectoration, or rather 
(in the horse) by discharge from the nostrils. In the cases that do 
not terminate so happily the lung may become gangrenous (or mor- 
tified), or an abscess may form, or the disease may be merged into 
the chronic variety. 

Pneumonia may be directly induced by any of the influences named 
as general causes for diseases of the organs of respiration, but in 
many instances it is due to either willful neglect or ignorance. A 
common cold or sore throat may run into a fatal case of pneumonia if 
neglected or improperly treated. An animal may be debilitated by a 
cold, and when in this weakened state may be compelled to undergo 
exertion beyond his strength ; or he may be kept in bad quarters, such 
as a badly ventilated stable, where the foul gases are shut in and the 
pure air is shut out; or the stable may be so open that parts of the 
body are exposed to draughts of cold air. Either of the foregoing 
causes may induce congestion of the lungs in an animal predisposed to 
it on account of having already a disease of the respiratory organs. 
The congestion is soon followed by the other stages of inflammation, 
and a case of pneumonia is established with a tendency to a fatal ter- 
mination, as it is altogether likely the animal will be so much reduced 
in constitution as to be unable to fight off a collapse. An animal is 
predisposed to pneumonia when debilitated by any constitutional dis- 
ease, and especially during convalescence if exposed to any of the ex- 
citing causes. Foreign bodies, such as food, accidentally getting in 
the lungs by way of the windpipe, as well as the inhalation of irritating 
gases and smoke, ofttimes produce fatal attacks of inflammation of the 
lung and bronchial tubes. Pneumonia is frequently seen in connection 
with other diseases, such as influenza, purpura hemorrhagica, strangles, 
glanders, etc. An abnormal state of the blood predisposes to it. 
Pneumonia and pleurisy are most common during cold, damp weather, 
and especially during the prevalence of the cold north and northeast- 
erly winds. Wounds puncturing the thoracic cavity may induce it. 

Symptoms. — Pneumonia, when a primary disease, is ushered in by a 
chill, more or less prolonged, which in most cases is seen neither by the 
owner nor the attendant, but is overlooked. The breathing becomes 
accelerated, and the animal hangs its head and has a very dull appear- 
ance. The mouth is hot and has a sticky feeling to the touch; the heat 
conveyed to the finger in the mouth demonstrates a fever; if the ther- 



118 

mometer is placed in the rectum the temperature will be found to have 
risen to 103° F., or higher. The pulse is very frequent, beating from 
seventy or eighty to one hundred or more a minute; the character of 
the pulse varies very much; it may be hard or feeble, large or small, 
intermitting, etc. There is usually a dry cough from the beginning, 
which, however, changes in character as the disease advances; for in- 
stance it may become moist, or if pleurisy sets in the cough will be 
peculiar to the latter affection, that is, cut short in the endeavor to sup- 
press it. In some cases the discharge from the nostrils is tinged with 
blood, while in other cases it has the appearance of matter. The ap- 
petite is lost to a greater or less extent, but the desire for water is 
increased, particularly during the onset of the fever. The membrane 
within the nostrils is red and at first dry, but sooner or later becomes 
moist. The legs are cold. The bowels are more or less constipated, 
and what dung is passed is usually covered with a slimy mucus. The 
urine is passed in smaller quantities than usual and is of a darker color. 

The animal prefers to have the head where the freshest air can be 
obtained. When affected with pneumonia a horse does not lie down, 
but persists in standing from the beginning of the attack. However, 
if pneumonia is complicated with pleurisy the horse may appear restless 
and lie down for a few moments to gain relief from the pleuritic pains, 
but he soon rises. In pneumonia the breathing is very rapid, and some- 
times even the most negligent observer will notice that it is difficult, but 
when the pneumonia is complicated with pleurisy the ribs are kept as 
still as possible and the breathing is abdominal, that is, the abdominal 
muscles are now made to do as much of the work as they can perform. 
Remember if pleurisy is not present there is no paiu. To the ordinary 
observer the animal may not appear daugerously ill, as he does not show 
the seriousness of the ailment by violence, as in colic, but a careful ob- 
server will discover at a glance that the trouble is something more 
serious than a cold. 

If the reader has practiced auscultation and percussion sufficiently to 
discriminate the sounds, or absence of sounds, of the diseased lung from 
the sounds of the normal lung, he may still further satisfy himself in 
diagnosing the ailment. When the lung is healthy, if the chest is 
knocked on, a more or less resonant sound is emitted, according to the 
part struck ; but when the air cells are filled with the exudate of in- 
flammation, and the surrounding lung tissue contains the exudate and 
extravasated blood, the air is excluded, and the part of the lung thus 
affected is solidified ; now, if the chest is struck over this solidified part, 
a dull sound is obtained. Therefore, percussion not only shows that 
the lung is affected with pneumonia, but it points to the spot affected. 
Moreover, if pleurisy exists in conjunction with pneumonia, and the 
walls of the chest are knocked on with a view of gaining information 
from the sounds elicited, when that part immediately over the affected 
pleura is struck, the animal flinches, as the blows, even if they are but 
moderate, cause severe pain. 



119 

By auscultation, listening to the sounds within the ch est, we gain 
much information. When the ear is placed against the chest of a 
healthy horse the respiratory murmur is heard more or less distinctly, 
according to the part of the chest that is beneath the ear. In the very 
first stage of pneumonia this murmur is louder and hoarser ; and, also, 
there is heard a fine crackling sound something similar to that produced 
when salt is thrown in a fire. After the affected part becomes solid 
there is an absence of sound over that particular part. After absorp- 
tion begins, you will again hear sounds, which gradually change until 
the natural sound is heard announcing the return of health. 

When a fatal termination is approaching all the symptoms become in- 
tensified. The breathing becomes still more rapid and difficult; the 
flanks heave; the poor animal stares wildly about as if imploring aid to 
drive off the terrible feeling of suffocation ; the body is bathed with the 
sweat of death ; he staggers, but quickly recovers his balance ; he may 
now, for the first time during the attack, lie down ; he does so, how. 
ever, in the hope of relief, which he fails to find, and with difficulty 
struggles to his feet; he pants; he heaves ; the nostrils flap; he stag- 
gers and sways from side to side and backwards and forwards, but still 
tries to retain the standing position, even by propping himself against 
the stall. It is no use, as after a fearful and agonizing fight for breath, 
he goes down ; still instinct with the desire to live he makes a few in- 
effectual efforts to breathe, which only result in a horrible wheezing, 
gasping noise ; the limbs stretch out and become rigid, and — he rises no 
more. A bystauder breaks the silence with the remark, " He died 
hard." Such is the usual death scene when caused by pneumonia. It 
amounts to a veritable struggle against suffocation. Death ensues usu- 
ally in from ten to twenty days after the beginning of the attack. On 
the other hand when the disease is terminating favorably the signs are 
obvious. When the fever abates the animal gradually improves in 
appetite; he takes more notice of things around him; his spirits im- 
prove ; he has a general appearance of returning health, and he lies 
down and rests easy. In the great majority of cases pneumonia, if 
properly treated, is by no means a fatal disease. 

Treatment. — The general outline of the treatment is much the same 
as advised for bronchitis. The comfort and surroundings of the patient 
must be attended to first. The quarters should be the best that can be 
provided. Pure air is essential. Avoid placing the animal in a stall 
where he may be exposed to draughts of cold air and sudden changes, 
of temperature. Some authorities state that such exposure is not 
harmful after pneumonia has set in, but nevertheless the reader is ad- 
vised to pursue the conservative course and not to experiment. When 
making the stable comfortably warm do not prevent the access of pure 
air. It is much better for the animal if the air is cold and pure than if 
it is warm and foul. It is better to make the animal comfortable with 
warm clothing than to make the stable warm by shutting off the ven- 
tilation. The animal should have an unlimited supply of fresh cold 



120 

drinking water from the start. Blanket the body. Rub the legs until 
they are warm and then put bandages on them from the hoofs up as 
far as they are cold. If warmth can not be re-established in the legs 
by hand-rubbing alone, apply the liniment as recommended in the treat- 
ment of bronchitis. 

The bandages should be removed once or twice every day, the legs 
well rubbed, and the bandages re-applied. Rub well over the affected 
side an application of the liniment mentioned in the treatment of sore 
throat. The application may be repeated in four or five days. Do not 
use mustard ; no doubt about its acting, and acting quickly, too, but 
experience teaches that it is not so good as something less irritating 
and more prolonged in its beneficial effects. Much harm is often done 
by clipping off hair and rubbing in powerful escharotic blistering com- 
pounds. They do positive injury and retard recovery, and should not 
be allowed. Much benefit may be derived from hot applications to the 
sides of the chest if the facilities are at hand to apply them. If the 
weather be not too cold, and if the animal is in a comfortable stable, the 
following method may be tried : Have a tub of hot water handy to the 
stable door ; soak a woolen blanket in the water, then quickly wring as 
much water as possible out of it and wrap it around the chest. See 
that it fits closely to the skin ; do not allow it to sag down so that air 
may get between it and the skin. Now wrap a dry blanket over the 
wet hot one. The hot blanket should be renewed every half hour, and 
while it is off being wetted and wrung, the dry one should remain over 
the wet part of the chest to prevent reaction. The hot applications 
should be kept up for three or four hours, and when stopped, the skin 
should be quickly rubbed as dry as possible, an application of liniment 
rubbed over the wet part, and a dry blanket snugly fitted over the 
animal ; and especial care should be taken to cover with it the wet part 
of the skin. If the hot applications appear to benefit, they may be 
tried on three or four consecutive days. Unless every facility and cir- 
cumstance favors the application of heat in the foregoing manner do 
not attempt it. If the weather is very cold, or any of the details are 
omitted, more harm than good may result. In the majority of cases, 
warm clothing to the body, bandages to the legs, and the liniment ap- 
plied to legs and chest will suffice. 

It is possible that cases occur that may be slightly benefited by bleed- 
ing, but the non-expert is certainly unable to discriminate in such in- 
stances, and therefore blood-letting should never be practiced. Indeed, 
many veterinary practitioners of great experience wholly condemn the 
practice of bleeding in pneumonia, as positively hurtful. When pneu- 
monia follows another disease the system is always more or less debili- 
tated, and requires the careful use of stimulants from the beginning; 
to still further weaken the animal by tapping him (if the expression 
may be used), and letting escape in a stream the very source of his 
remaining strength, is one of the most effectual methods of retarding 
recovery, even if it does not hasten a fatal termination. 



121 

Another and oftentimes a fatal mistake made by the non-professional 
is the indiscriminate and reckless use of aconite. This drug is one of 
the most active poisons, and should not be handled by any one who 
does not thoroughly understand its action and uses. It is only less 
active than prussic acid in its poisonous effects. It is a common opinion, 
often expressed by non- professionals, that aconite is a stimulant; noth- 
ing could be more erroneous. In fact, it is just the reverse; it is one 
of the most powerful sedatives used in the practice of medicine. In 
fatal doses it kills by paralyzing the very muscles used in breathing; it 
weakens the action of the beart, and should not be used in any but 
strong or sthenic types of inflammation, and then only by the expert. 
After an extensive experience in the treatment of pneumonia in various 
sections, from the cold northern regions of Canada to the temperate 
climate of Virginia and North Carolina, the writer has discarded aconite 
entirely from the list of medicines he uses in the treatment of this affec- 
tion. Do not give purgative medicines. If constipation exists, over- 
come it by an allowance of laxative diet, such as scalded oats, bran and 
linseed mashes, and grass if in season. 

A careful observer will notice that the dung passed by the animal is 
coated with mucus ; this, is an indication that the bowels are in an irri- 
table condition ; in fact they are affected to a small extent by the dis- 
ease. Now, if a purgative dose is administered the irritable state is 
aggravated ; they become inordinately active and a diarrhea or super- 
purgation is established that proves a most difficult matter to check. 
It must be remembered that the animal is already weakened by an ex- 
haustive disease, and the "running off at the bowels" not only still 
further weakens the animal, but may cause the bowels to become in- 
flamed, and thus insure a fatal termination. It is a common practice 
among non -professionals to give aloes and oil to a horse with pneu- 
monia, and, considering this fact, it is no wonder that it proves such a 
fatal disease in their hands. If the costiveness is not relieved by the 
laxative diet, give an enema of about a quart of warm water three or 
four times a day. 

A diet consisting principally of bran mashes, scalded oats, grass or 
blade fodder, when in season, is preferable if the animal retains an 
appetite ; but if no desire is evinced for food of this particular descrip- 
tion, then the animal must be allowed to eat anything that will be 
taken spontaneously. Hay tea, made by pouring boiling water over 
good hay in a large bucket, and allowing it to stand until cool, then 
straining off the liquid, will sometimes create a desire for food. The 
animal may be allowed to drink as much of it as he desires. Corn on 
the cob is often eaten when everything else is refused. Bread may be 
tried, also apples or carrots. If the animal can be persuaded to drink 
milk it may be supported by it for days. Three or four gallons of sweet 
milk may be given during the day, in which may be stirred three or 
four fresh eggs to each gallon of milk. Some horses will drink milk, 
\ihile others will refuse to touch it. It should be borne in mind that 



122 

all food must be taken by the horse as be desires it. No food should 
be forced down him. If the auimal will not eat, you will only have to 
wait until a desire is shown for food. All kinds may be offered, first 
one thing and then another, but food should not be allowed to remain 
long in trough or manger ; the very fact of it constantly being before 
him will cause him to loathe it. When the animal has no appetite for 
anything, the stomach is not in a proper state to digest food, and if it 
is poured or drenched into him it will only cause indigestion and aggra- 
vate the case. It is a good practice to do nothing when there is noth- 
ing to be done that will benefit. This refers to medicine as well as 
food. Nothing is well done that is over done. The following drench 
should be administered every six hours: Solution of the acetate of 
ammonia, 3 ounces ; spirits of nitrous ether, 1 ounce ; bicarbonate of 
potassium, 3 drams ; water, 1 pint. Care should be used in drenching; 
no recklessness such as filling the mouth with medicines, then holding 
the hand tightly over the nostrils and pounding on the throat and 
windpipe, kicking the horse in the belly or ribs, or other like conduct, 
should be practiced. If the animal coughs or attempts to cough while 
the head is up, let the head down immediately. Better to lose the 
medicine than to cause it to get into the lungs. 

There are many valuable medicines used for the different stages and ' 
different types of pneumonia, but in the opinion of the writer it is use- 
less to refer to them here, as this work is intended for the use of those 
who are not sufficiently acquainted with the disease to recognize its 
various types and stages; therefore they would only confuse. If you 
can administer a ball or capsule, or have any one at hand who is capable 
of doing it, a dram of sulphate of quinine in a capsule, or made into a 
ball, with sufficient linseed meal and molasses, given every three hours 
during the height of the fever, will do good in many cases. The ball of 
carbonate of ammonia, as advised in the treatment of bronchitis, may 
be tried if the animal is hard to drench. 

If the horse becomes very much debilitated, stimulants of a more pro- 
nounced character are required. The following drench is useful: Recti- 
fied spirits, 3 ounces; spirits of nitrous ether, 2 ouuces; water, 1 pint. 
This may be repeated every four or five hours if it seems to benefit. Or 
6 ounces of good whisky, diluted with a pint of water, may be given as 
often, instead of the foregoing. 

There are cases where sedatives are undoubtedly beneficial, but a 
knowledge both of disease and medicine is required to discriminate in 
such cases; therefore the only rational course to pursue in a work of 
this kind is to map out a line of treatment that will do good in all cases 
and harm in none, and at the same time be within the understanding of 
those who have not made a special study of disease. 

During the period of convalescence good nutritive food should be al- 
lowed in a moderate quantity. Tonic medicines should be substituted 
for those used during the fever. The same medicines advised for the 



123 

convalescing period of bronchitis are equally efficient in this case. 
Likewise, the same general instructions apply here. 

Death may occur during the first stage of the disease, owing to the 
severity of the fever, or it may occur during the period when the lungs 
are solidified by the exudate of the inflammation filling up the air cells 
and bronchial tubes, or it may take place later, when the exudate fails 
to liquify and undergo absorption, and is then due to suppuration, the 
formation of an abscess, or gangrene or mortification. As a matter of 
course pneumonia is most often fatal when both lungs are involved in 
the inflammation. 

In concluding, it may be well to remind you that if pneumonia is 
properly treated the great majority of cases will terminate in a complete 
restoration to health. In all cases much will depend on the good judg- 
ment of the person directing the treatment of the case. If it is seen 
that any one thing is doing harm, then that particular thing should be 
omitted. For instance, if drenching the animal is attended with harm, 
that is, if it unnecessarily excites him, or if he obstinately refuses to 
swallow the medicine, then do not further annoy him by persistently 
trying to do what you are able to see only makes matters worse. Omit 
the drenching, and dissolve 3 drams of bicarbonate of potassium in every 
bucketful of water he will drink of his own free will. Give the quinine 
in capsules or balls, and also the carbonate of ammonia balls. A ball- 
ing iron (or mouth speculum) may be obtained from any veterinary in- 
strument dealer. A little practice with it will enable you to become 
somewhat expert in giving medicines in the latter form. Do not give 
quinine and ammonia together; let at least an hour intervene between 
the administration of the two different medicines. 

PLEUKISY. 

The thoracic cavity is divided into two lateral compartments, each 
containing one lung, besides other organs. Each lung has its separate 
pleural membrane or covering. The anatomical arrangement of the 
pleura is simple to the anatomist, but a detailed description of it would 
be beyond the comprehension of the average reader. Suffice it to say 
that the pleura is the thin, glistening membrane that covers the lung, 
and also completely covers the internal walls of the chest. It is very 
thin, and to the ordinary observer appears to be part of the lung, which, 
in fact, it is for all practical purposes. The smooth, shiny surface of 
the lung, as well as the smooth, shiny surface so familiar on the rib, is 
the pleura. In health this surface is always moist. A fluid (called 
serum) is thrown off (secreted) by the pleura, which causes the surface 
to be constantly moist. This is to prevent the effects of friction between 
the lungs and the walls of the chest and other contiguous parts which 
come in contact. It must be remembered the lungs are constantly di- 
lating each time a breath is taken in, and contracting each time a 
breath of air is expelled. It may be readily seen that if it were not for 
the moistened state of the surface of the pleura the continual dilation 



124 

aud contraction and the consequent rubbing of the parts against each 
other would cause a serious friction. This, then, is the office of the 
pleura — to secrete or moisten its surface with a fluid to prevent the ill 
effects of friction. 

Inflammation of this membrane is called pleurisy. Being so closely 
united with the lung, it can not always escape participation in the dis- 
ease when the latter is inflamed. Pleurisy may be due to the same 
predisposing and exciting causes as mentioned in the beginning of this 
work as general causes for diseases of the organs of respiration, such 
as exposure to sudden changes of temperature, confinement in damp 
stables, etc. It may be caused by wounds that penetrate the chest, for 
it must be remembered that such wounds must necessarily pierce the 
pleura. A fractured rib may involve the pleura. The inflammation 
following such wounds may be circumscribed, that is, confined to a 
small area surrounding the wound, or it may spread from the wound 
and involve a large portion of the pleura. The pleura may be involved 
secondarily when the heart or its membrane is the primary seat of the 
disease. It may occur in conjunction with bronchitis, influenza, and 
other diseases. It is commonly seen in connection with rheumatism. 
Diseased growths that interfere with the pleura may induce pleurisy, 
but it is most frequently met with in connection with pneumonia, for 
the reason given heretofore. Pleurisy will be described here as an 
independent affection, although it should be remembered that it is very 
often associated with the foregoing diseases. 

When the animal is affected with pleurisy an ordinary observer should 
have no difficulty in detecting the disease, provided the diagnostic 
symptoms are studied beforehand. The very first stage is a congested 
state of the blood vessels in the parts affected; the surface of the mem- 
brane becomes dry and roughened (this fact will be again referred to 
when the symptoms are described). This dry condition is followed, after 
a certain period, by an effusion of fluid, that is, more fluid than usual is 
thrown off by the membrane when in a diseased condition. This fluid 
accumulates in the space between the lungs and the walls of the chest, 
constituting hydro-thorax, or dropsy of the chest. This fluid may 
undergo certain changes; in it float coagulated masses called fibrin. 
The surface of the lung may adhere to the internal surface of the ribs. 
The quantity of exuded fluid varies to a great extent. In some cases 
the chest contains an enormous amount, and when it is not absorbed 
pus may be generated to a greater or less extent. 

Symptoms. — When the disease exists as an independent affection it is 
ushered in by a chill, but this is usually overlooked. About the first 
thing noticed is the disinclination of the animal to move or turn round. 
When made to do so he grunts or groans with pain. He stands stiff; 
the ribs are fixed, that is, the ribs move very little in the act of breath- 
ing, but the abdomen works more than natural; both the fore feet aud 
elbows may be turned out ; during the onset of the attack the animal 
may be restless, and act as if he had a slight colic ; he may even lie 



125 

down, but does not remain long down, for when lie finds no relief he soon 
gets up. After effusion begins these signs of restlessness disappear. 
If the observer looks for it, a furrow will be found running along the 
lower part of the chest from behind the elbow back to the flank; this is 
due to the endeavor of the animal to keep the ribs fixed in as near as 
possible an immovable position. Every movement of the chest causes 
excruciating pain, therefore the cough is peculiar ; it is short and sup- 
pressed, and comes as near being no cough as the animal can make it 
in his desire to suppress it. The breathiug is hurried, the mouth is hot, 
the temperature being elevated from 102° or 103° to 105° F. The usual 
symptoms that accompany fever are present, such as costiveness, scanty, 
dark-colored urine, etc. The pulse is frequent, perhaps seventy or more 
a minute, and is hard and wiry. The legs and ears are cold. 

Percussion is of valuable service in this affection. The ribs may be 
struck with the knuckles. By striking different parts you will come to 
a spot of greater or less extent where the blows cause much pain to be 
evinced. The animal may grunt or groan every time it is struck. 
Another method of detecting the affected part is to press the fingers 
between the ribs, each space in succession, beginning behind the elbow, 
until you arrive at a place where the pressure causes more flinching 
than at any other part. Auscultation is also useful. In the first 
stage, when the surfaces are dry and rough, if the ear is placed against 
different parts of the chest you will eventually come to the affected 
part, which will be readily manifested by a friction sound very much 
like that produced by rubbing two pieces of coarse paper together. 
The sound appears immediately under the ear, and is distinct. No such 
friction sound occurs when the membrane is healthy, as the natural 
moisture, heretofore mentioned, prevents the friction. In many cases 
this friction is so pronounced that it may be felt by placing the hand 
over the affected part. When the dry stage is succeeded by the exu- 
dation of fluid, this friction sound disappears. After the effusion into 
the cavity takes place there sometimes is heard a tinkling or metallic 
sound, due to dropping of the exudate from above into the collected 
fluid in the bottom of the cavity, as the collected fluid more or less 
separates the lung from the chest walls. 

Within two or three days the urgent symptoms are abated, owing to 
the exudation of the fluid and the subsidence of the pain. The fluid 
may now undergo absorption, and the case terminate favorably within 
a week or ten days. 

If the quantity of the effusion is large, its own volume retards the 
process of absorption to a great extent, and consequently convales- 
cence is delayed. In some cases the symptoms manifest a serious state. 
The pulse becomes more frequent, the breathing more hurried and 
labored, the flanks work like bellows, the nostrils flap, the eyes stare 
wildly, the countenance expresses much anxiety, and general signs of 
dissolution are plain. After a time swellings appear under the chest 
and abdomen and down the legs. These swellings are due to trans- 



126 

fusion of the fluid from within the chest into the surrounding tissues. 
The accumulation in the chest is called hydro-thorax or dropsy of the 
chest. When this fluid contains pus the case usually proves fatal. The 
condition of pus within the cavity is called enipyaenia. 

Pleurisy may affect only a small area of one side, or it may affect 
both sides. It is oftener confined to the right side. 

Treatment. — This varies very little from the treatment of bronchitis 
and pneumonia, but as frequently stated heretofore, pleurisy is so lia- 
ble to be complicated with either of the diseases named, the variation 
in the treatment may be considered as merely adjunct treatment of the 
pleuritic complication. 

The instructions in regard to the general management of bronchitis 
and pneumonia must be adhered to in the treatment of pleurisy. Com- 
fortable quarters, pure air, warm clothing to the body and bandages to 
the legs, a plentiful supply of pure cold water, the laxative food, etc., 
in this case are equally necessary and efficacious. The hot applica- 
tions applied to the chest as directed in the treatment of pneumonia 
are very beneficial in pleurisy, and should be kept up while the symp- 
toms show the animal to be in pain. 

During the first few days, when pain is manifested by restlessness, 
do not apply the liniment to the sides of the chest, as it will not only 
irritate the animal and increase the restlessness but will heighten the 
fever as well. After four or five days, when the symptoms show that 
the acute stage has somewhat subsided, the liniment may be well 
rubbed over the affected part with benefit, as it will greatly promote 
the absorption of the effusion. The application may be repeated on al- 
ternate days until several applications have been made. From the be- 
ginning the following drench should be given every six hours : Solu- 
tion of the acetate of ammonia, 3 ounces; spirits of nitrous ether, 1 
ounce ; bicarbonate of potassium, 3 drams; water, 1 pint. 

If the patient becomes debilitated the stimulants as prescribed for 
pneumonia should be used according to the same directions. The same 
attention should be given to the diet. If the animal will partake of 
the bran mashes, scalded oats, and grass, it is the best, but if he re- 
fuses the laxative diet then he should be tried with different kinds of 
food, and allowed whichever kind he desires. 

In the beginning of the attack, if the pain is severe, causing the ani- 
mal to lie down or paw, the following drench should be given: Tinct- 
ure of opium, 2 ounces; raw linseed oil, 12 ounces. If the pain con- 
tinues, the tincture of opium may be repeated within four or five hours. 

If the case is not progressing favorably in ten or twelve days after 
the beginning of the attack, convalescence is delayed by the fluid in the 
chest failing to be absorbed. The animal becomes dull aud weak, and 
evinces little or no desire for food. The breathing becomes still more 
rapid and difficult. An effort must now be made to excite the absorp- 
tion of the effusion. An application of the liniment should be rubbed 
over the lower part of both sides and the bottom of the chest. The 



127 

following drench should be given three times a day, for seven or eight 
days if it is necessary and appears to benefit: Tincture of the per- 
chloride of iron, 1 ounce; tincture of gentian, 2 ounces; water, 1 pint. 
Also give 1 dram of iodide of potassium dissolved in the drinking- water 
an hour before feeding, every night and morning for a week or two. 

Hydro-thorax is sometimes difficult to overcome by means of the use 
of medicines alone, when an operation called paracentesis thoracis is 
performed. In plain language this means tapping the chest to allow an 
escape for the accumulated fluid. The operation is performed with 
a combined instrument called the trocar and canula. The puncture is 
made in the lower part of the chest, in the space between the eighth 
and ninth ribs. Wounding of the intercostal artery is avoided by in- 
serting the instrument as near as possible to the anterior edge of the 
rib. If the operation is of benefit it is only so when performed before 
the strength is lowered beyond recovery. The operation merely re- 
ceives a passing notice here, as it is not presumed that the non-profes- 
sional will attempt it, although it is attended with little danger or diffi- 
culty in the hands of the expert. 

We have described bronchitis, pneumonia, and pleurisy mainly as 
they occur as independent diseases, and have treated them in a way 
that an intelligent person can not possibly do harm. While it is true 
much more might have been said in regard to the different stages and 
types of the affections, and also in regard to the treatment of each stage 
and each particular type, the plan adopted is considered the wisest on 
account of simplifying as much as possible a subject of which the reader 
is supposed to know very little, if anything. 

A few words will now be devoted to these affections as they occur, 
when two or more exist at the same time and in the same animal. 

PLEURO-PNETJMONIA. 

The disease is so called when the animal is affected with pleurisy and 
pneumonia combined, which is most frequently the case. At the be- 
ginning of the attack only one of the affections maybe present, but the 
other soon follows. It has already been stated that the pleura is closely 
adherent to the lung. The pleura on this account is frequently more or 
less affected by the spreading of thff inflammation from the lung tissue. 
There is a combination of the symptoms of both diseases, but to the or- 
dinary observer the symptoms of pleurisy are the most obvious. The 
course of treatment to be pursued differs in no manner from that given 
for the affections when they occur independently. The symptoms will 
be your guide as to the advisability of giving oil and laudanum for the 
pain if the pleurisy is very severe. Do not resort to it unless it is nec- 
essary to allay the pain. 

BRONCHO-PLEURO-PNETJMONIA. 

This is the term or terms applied when bronchitis, pleurisy, and pneu- 
monia all exist at once. This is by no means a common occurrence. 



128 

However, it is impossible for one who is not an expert to diagnose the 
state with certainty. The apparent symptoms are the same as when 
the animal is affected with pleuro pneumonia. 

BRONCHO-PNEUMONIA. 

This is also a common complication. Either one or the other may be 
first in operation. When bronchitis affects the smaller bronchial tubes 
the inflammation readily extends to the air-cells and thence to the lung 
tissue, constituting pneumonia. Or the bronchial tube may be second- 
arily involved by the extension of the inflammation from the air-cells. 
Nothing in regard to the treatment of this condition requires to be said 
here, as it has been fully described when speaking of bronchitis and 
pneumonia as separate diseases. A brief review of some of the unfa- 
vorable results of pleurisy and pneumonia will not be out of place here: 

SUPPURATION AND ABSCESS IN THE LUNG. 

There are instances, and especially when the surroundings of the pa- 
tient have been bad, when the inflammation terminates in an abscess 
in the lung. Sometimes, when the inflammation has been extreme, 
suppuration in a large portion of the lung takes place. Impure air, the 
result of improper ventilation, is the most frequent cause of this termi- 
nation. The symptoms of suppuration in the lung are an exceedingly 
offensive smell of the breath, and the discharge of the matter from the 
nostrils. 

MORTIFICATION. 

Gangrene or mortification means a death of the part affected. Oc- 
casionally, owing to the intensity of the inflammation or bad treatment, 
pneumonia aud pleuro-pneumonia terminate in mortification, which is 
soon followed by the death of the animal. 

ABSCESS IN THE SPACES BETWEEN THE RIBS. 

Abscess of the intercostal spaces has been recorded as a result of 
pleurisy. Following the attack of pleurisy an enlargement appears on 
some part of the chest, which may burst of its own accord. When it 
makes its appearance it is advisable to apply poultices of linseed meal 
and hot water, or bathe it continuously for hours at a time with water 
as hot as can be comfortably borne. This treatment will hasten the 
formation of matter. When it is soft in the center it should be lanced 
and the matter allowed to escape. The course of tonic treatment and 
nutritive food advised in the treatment of pleurisy should be kept up. 

HEMOPTYSIS — BLEEDING FROM THE LUNGS. 

Bleeding from the lungs may occur during the course of congestion 
of the lungs, bronchitis, pneumonia, influenza, purpura hemorrhagica, 
or glanders. An accident or exertion may cause a rupture of a vessel. 
Plethora predisposes to it. Following the rupture of a vessel the blood 
may escape into the lung tissue and cause a serious attack of pneu« 
monia, or it may fill up the bronchial tubes and prove fatal by suffocat- 



129 

ing the animal. When the hemorrhage is from the lungs it is accom- 
panied by coughing ; the blood is frothy and comes from both nostrils. 
Whereas when the bleeding is merely from a rupture of a vessel in 
some part of the head (heretofore described as bleeding from the nose) 
the blood is most likely to issue from one nostril only, and the discharge 
is not accompanied by coughing. The ear may be placed against the 
windpipe along its course, and if the blood is from the lungs -a gurg- 
ling or rattling sound will be heard. When it occurs in connection with 
another disease it seldom requires special treatment. When caused by 
accident or overexertion the animal should be kept quiet. If the cough 
is frequent or paroxysmal a dose composed of 2 ounces of tincture of 
opium in 8 ounces of raw linseed oil may be given to allay the irrita- 
bility, which may stop the hemorrhage by checking the cough. If the 
hemorrhage is profuse and continues for several hours 1 dram of the 
acetate of lead dissolved in a pint of water may be given as a drench, 
or 1 ounce of the tincture of the perchloride of iron, diluted with a 
pint of water, may be given instead of the lead. It is rare that the 
hemorrhage is so profuse as to require internal remedies. But hem- 
orrhage into the lung may occur and cause death by suffocation without 
the least manifestation of it by the discharge of blood from the nose. 

CONSUMPTION. 

Pulmonary consumption, " the same as phthisis or consumption in 
man," has been described by European authors as affecting the horse. It 
is mentioned here merely to give the writer an opportunity to say that 
he never saw a case of it, and never conversed with a veterinarian on 
the subject who has met with a case in the horse. This fact does not 
prove that the horse is exempt from the disease, but it at least proves 
that it must be rare indeed. 

DROPSY OF THE LUNG. 

This condition has been noticed as a result of heart disease, and as it 
is said, almost invariably to terminate fatally, no further notice of it 
is necessary here. 

HEAVES — BROKEN WIND— ASTHMA. 

Much confusion exists in the popular mind in regard to the nature of 
broken wind. Many horsemen apply the term to all ailments where 
the breathing is difficult or noisy. Scientific veterinarians are well ac- 
quainted with the phenomena and locality of the affection, but there is 
a great diversity of opinion as regards the. exact cause. Asthma is 
generally thought to be due to spasm of the small circular muscles that 
surround the bronchial tubes. The continued existence of this affec- 
tion of the muscles leads to a paralysis of them, and is considered one 
of the primary stages of broken wind. 

Some eminent veterinarians maintain that the exciting cause of broken 
wind is due to a lesion of the pneumogastric nerve. That there is good 
foundation for this opinion there can be no doubt. The pneumogastric 
11035—9 



130 

nerves send branches to the bronchial tubes, lungs, heart, stomach, etc. 
All the organs just mentioned may sooner or later become involved in 
connection with broken wind. It may be said that broken wind is always 
associated with disorder of the function of digestion. It is claimed that 
coarse or indigestible food irritates the branches of the pneumogastric 
nerves which supply the walls of the stomach, and this irritation is re- 
flected or extended to the branches of the same nerve which supply 
the lungs, when the lesions constituting broken wind follow. 

In itself broken wind is not a fatal disease, but death is generally 
caused by an affection closely connected with it. After death, if the 
organs are examined, the lesions found depend much upon the length 
of time broken wind has affected the animal. In recent cases very few 
changes are noticeable, but in animals that have been broken-winded 
for a long time the changes are well marked. The lungs are paler than 
natural, and of much less weight in proportion to the volume, as evi- 
denced by floating them in water. The walls of the small bronchial 
tubes and the membrane of the larger tubes are thickened. The right 
side of the heart is enlarged and its cavities dilated. The stomach is 
enlarged and its walls stretched. And in many old cases the intestinal 
walls undergo the same changes. The important change found in the 
lungs is a condition technically called pulmonary emphysema. This 
is of two varieties: First, what is termed vesicular emphysema, which 
consists of an enlargement of the capacity of the air-cells (air vesicles) 
by dilation of their walls ; the walls after a time degenerate, and finally 
give way, and thus form a communication with other air-cells. The 
second form is called interlobular emphysema, and follows the first. 
In this variety the air finds its way into the lung tissue between the 
air-cells, or, as its name indicates, in the tissue between the small 
lobules. 

Symptoms. — Almost every experienced horseman is able to detect 
"heaves." The peculiar movement of the flanks and abdomen point 
out the ailment at once. But in recent cases the affected animal does 
not always exhibit the characteristic breathing unless exerted to a cer- 
tain extent. The cough which accompanies this disease is peculiar to 
it. It is difficult to describe, but the souud is short, and something like 
a grunt. 

When air is inspired, that is, taken in, it appears to be done in the 
same manner as in health ; it may possibly be done a little quicker than 
natural, but not enough to attract any notice. It is when the act of 
expiration (or expelling the air from the lungs) is performed that the 
great change in the breathing is perceptible. It must now be remem- 
bered that the lungs have lost much of their power of contracting on 
account of the degeneration of the walls of the air-cells, and also on 
account of the paralysis of muscular tissue before mentioned. The air 
passes into them freely, but the power to expel it is lost to a great 
extent by the lungs: therefore the abdominal muscles are brought into 
play. These muscles, especially iu the region of the flank, are seen to 



131 

contract, then pause for a moment, then complete the act of contracting, 
thus making a double bellows-like movement at each expiration, a sort 
of jerky motion with every breath. When the animal is exerted a 
wheezing noise accompanies the breathing. This noise may be heard 
to a less extent when the animal is at rest if the ear be applied to the 
chest. 

As before remarked, indigestion is always present in these cases. 
The animal has a depraved appetite, as shown by a desire to eat dirt 
and soiled bedding, which he often devours in preference to the clean 
food in the trough or manger. The stomach is liable to be overloaded 
with indigestible food. The abdomen may assume that form called 
"pot-bellied." The animal frequently passes wind, which is of a very 
offensive odor. Attacks of colic may occur, which in some cases are 
fatal. When first put to work dung is passed frequently; the bowels 
are often loose. The animal can not stand much work, as the muscular 
system is soft. Round chested horses are said to be predisposed to the 
disease, and it is certain that in cases of long standing the chest usually 
becomes rounder than natural. 

Certain "smart" individuals become very expert in managing a horse 
affected with " heaves ".in suppressing the symptoms for a short time. 
They take advantage of the fact that the breathing is much easier when 
the stomach and intestines are empty. They also resort to the use of 
medicines that have a depressing effect. When the veterinarian is ex- 
amining a horse for soundness, and he suspects that the animal has 
been " fixed," he usually gives the horse as much water as he will drink 
and then has him ridden or driven rapidly up a hill or on a heavy road. 
This will bring out the characteristic breathing of " heaves." All 
broken- winded horses have the cough peculiar to the affection, but it is 
not regular. A considerable time may elapse before it is heard and 
then it may come on in paroxysms, especially when first brought out of 
the stable into the cold air, or when excited by work, or after a drink of 
cold water. The cough is usually the first symptom of the disease. 

Treatment. — When the disease is established there is no cure for it. 
Proper attention paid to the diet will relieve the distressing symptoms 
to a certain extent, but they will undoubtedly re-appear in their inten- 
sity the first time the animal overloads the stomach or is allowed food 
of bad quality. Putting aside all theories in regard to the primary 
cause of the affection, it is generally admitted that it is closely allied to 
derangement of the digestive organs, most particularly the stomach. 
This being the fact, it is but reasonable to infer that if the animal is 
allowed nothing but food of the best quality the predisposition to 
" heaves" is lessened. Clover hay and bulky food generally, which, as 
a rule, contains but little nutriment, have much to do with the cause of 
the disease, and therefore should be entirely omitted when the animal 
is affected, as well as before. A high authority asserts that the disease 
is unknown where clover hay is never used. The diet should be con- 
fined to food of the best quality and in the smallest quantity. The bad, 



132 

effect of moldy or dusty hay, fodder, or food of any kind can not be 
overestimated. A small quantity of the best hay once a day is suffi- 
cient. The animal should invariably be watered before feeding; never 
directly after a meal. It is a good plan to slightly dampen the food to 
allay the dust. The animal should not be worked immediately after a 
meal. Exertion, when the stomach is full, invariably aggravates the 
symptoms. Turning on pasture gives relief. Carrots, potatoes, or 
turnips chopped and mixed with oats or corn are a good diet. 

Many different medicines have been tried, but not one has yet been 
discovered that gives even partial satisfaction in the treatment of 
broken wind. Arsenic, however, is about the only remedy that retains 
any reputation of being efficacious in palliating the symptoms. It is 
best administered in the form of the solution of arsenic in hydrochloric 
acid (Liq. Acidi. Ars.), which should be obtained from the drug store, 
as it is then of a standard preparation. Each ounce of the solution con- 
tains a little over 4£ grains of arsenic. A tablespoouful mixed with 
bran and oats three times a day for about two weeks, then about twice 
a day for about two weeks longer, then once a day for several weeks, is 
a good way to give this remedy. If the bowels do not act regularly, a 
pint of raw linseed oil may be given once or twice a month. It must, 
however, be borne in mind that all medical treatment is of secondary 
consideration; careful attention paid to the diet is of greatest impor- 
tance. Broken-winded animals should not be used for breeding pur- 
poses. A predisposition to the disease is likely to be inherited. 

CHRONIC COUGH. 

A chronic cough may succeed the acute diseases of the respiratory 
organs, such as pneumonia, bronchitis, laryngitis, etc. It accompanies 
chronic roaring, chronic bronchitis, broken wind. It may succeed in- 
fluenza. As previously stated, cough is but a symptom and not a dis- 
ease in itself. Chronic cough is occasionally associated with diseases 
other than those of the organs of respiration. It may be a symptom of 
chronic indigestion or of worms. In such cases it is caused by a reflex 
nervous irritation. The proper treatment in all cases of chronic cough 
is to ascertain the nature of the disease of whieh it is a symptom, and 
then cure the disease if possible, and the cough will cease. 

The treatment of the affections will be found under their appropriate 
heads, to which the reader is referred. 

PLEURODYNIA. 

This is a form of rheumatism that affects the intercostal muscles, 
that is, the muscles between the ribs. The apparent symptoms are very 
similar to those of pleurisy. The animal is stiff and not inclined to 
turn around ; the ribs are kept in a fixed state as much as possible. If 
the head is pulled round suddenly, or the affected side struck with the 
hand, or if the spaces between the ribs are pressed with the fingers the 
animal will flinch and perhaps emit a grunt or groan expressive of 



133 

much pain. It is distinguished from pleurisy by the absence of fever, 
cough, the friction-sound, the effusion into the chest, and by the exist- 
ence of rheumatism in other parts. The treatment for this affection is 
the same as for rheumatism affecting other parts. 

WOUNDS PENETRATING THE WALLS OP THE CHEST. 

According to the theory of some teachers of physiology, when an 
opening is made in the wall of the chest, sufficient for the admission of 
air, a collapse of the lung should occur. But in practice this is not al- 
ways found to be the case. The writer has attended several such cases, 
and one in particular was not seen until about twelve hours after the 
wound was inflicted. It is true the breathing was considerably altered, 
but no bad effect followed the admission of air into the thoracic cav- 
ity. The wound was closed and treated according to the method of 
treating wounds generally, and a speedy and perfect recovery was made. 
The wound may not penetrate the pleura ; in such cases no great harm 
is done, but if the pleura is penetrated pleurisy may follow, and even 
pneumonia if the wound involves the lung. 

The condition called pneumo-thorax means air in the chest. This 
may be due to a wound in the wall of the chest, or it may be due to a 
broken rib, the sharp edge of which wounds the lung sufficiently to allow 
air to escape into the space between the lung and ribs, which is natu- 
rally a vacuum. Air gaining access to the thoracic cavity through 
a wound may have a peculiar effect. The wound may be so made that 
when the walls of the chest are dilating a little air is sucked in, but 
during the .contraction of the wall the contained air presses against the 
torn part in such a manner as to entirely close the wound ; thus a small 
quantity of air gains access with each inspiration, while none is allowed 
to escape until the lung is pressed into a very small compass and forced 
into the anterior part of the chest. The same thing may occur from a 
broken rib inflicting a wound in the lung. In this form the air gains 
access from the lung, and there may not even be an opening in the 
walls of the chest. Decomposition of the fluid in hydro-thorax, with 
consequent generation of gases, is said to have caused the same con- 
dition. In such cases the air is generally absorbed, and a spontaneous 
cure is the result. But when the symptoms are urgent it is recom- 
mended that the air be removed by a trocar and canula or by an 
aspirator. 

The treatment of wounds that penetrate the thoracic cavity should, 
for the foregoing reason, be prompt. It should be quickly ascertained 
whether or not a foreign body remains in the wound, then it should be 
thoroughly cleaned with a solution of carbolic acid one part in water 
forty parts. The wound should then be closed immediately. If it is an 
incised wound it should be closed with sutures ; if torn or lacerated, a 
bandage around the chest over the dressing is the best plan. At all 
events, air must be prevented from getting into the chest, as soon and 
as effectually as possible. The after treatment of the wound should 



134 

principally consist in keeping the parts clean with the solution of car- 
bolic acid, and applying fresh dressing as often as required to keep the 
wound in a healthy condition. Care should be taken that the discharges 
from the wound have an outlet in the most dependent part. (See 
wounds.) If the wound causes much pain it should be allayed with a 
dose of tincture of opium in raw linseed oil, as advised in the treat- 
ment of pleurisy. If pleurisy supervenes, it should be treated as ad- 
vised under that head. 

THUMPS — SPASM OP THE DIAPHRAGM. 

" Thumps " is generally thought to be, by the inexperienced, a pal- 
pitation of the heart. While it is true that palpitation of the heart is 
sometimes called "thumps," it must not be confounded with the affec- 
tion under consideration. 

In the beginning of this article on the diseases of the organs of res- 
piration the diaphragm was briefly referred to as the principal and es- 
sential muscle of respiration. Spasmodic or irregular contractions of 
it in man are manifested by what is familiarly known as hiccoughs. 
Thumps in the horse is identical with hiccoughs in man, although the 
peculiar noise is not made in the throat of the horse in all cases. - 

There should be no difficulty in distinguishing this affection from pal- 
pitation of the heart. The jerky motion affects the whole body, and is 
not confined to the region of the heart. If one hand is placed on the 
body at about the middle of the last rib, while the other hand is placed 
over the heart behind the left elbow it will be easily demonstrated that 
there is no connection between the thumping or jerking of the dia- 
phragm and the beating of the heart. If the ear is placed against the 
body it will be discovered that the sound is made posterior to the region 
of the heart. In fact, when the animal is affected with spasms of the 
diaphragm the beating of the heart is usually much weaker and less 
preceptible than natural. Thumps is produced by the same causes 
which produce congestion of the lungs, and is often seen in connection 
with the latter disease. If not relieved, death usually results from con- 
gestion of the lungs, as the breathing is interfered with by the inordi- 
nate action of this the principal muscle of inspiration so much that 
proper aeration of the blood can not take place. The treatment should 
be precisely the same as prescribed for congestion of the lungs. 

RUPTURE OF THE DIAPHRAGM. 

Post mortem examinations reveal a great many instances of rupture 
of the diaphragm. It is the general opinion among veterinarians that 
this takes place after death, and is due to the generation of gases in 
the decomposing carcass, which distend the intestines so that the dia- 
phragm is ruptured by the great pressure against it. Of course it is 
possible for it to happen before death and by strangulating the knuckle 
of intestine that may be in the rupture cause death; but there are no 
symptoms by which it may be diagnosed. 



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DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 



By Dr. JAMES LAW, F. R. C. V. S., 

Professor of Veterinary Science, etc., in Cornell University. 



CONGESTION AND INFLAMMATION OF THE TESTICLES — ORCHITIS. 

In the prime of life, in vigorous health, and on stimulating food stall- 
ions are subject to congestion of the testicles, which become swollen, 
hot, and tender, but without any active inflammation. A reduction of 
the grain in the feed, the administration of 1 or 2 ounces of Glauber 
salts daily in the food, and the bathing of the affected organs daily 
with tepid water or alum water will usually restore them to a healthy 
condition. 

When the factors producing congestion are extraordinarily potent r 
when there has been frequent copulation and heavy grain feeding, 
when the weather is warm and the animal has had little exercise, and 
when the proximity of other horses or mares excite the generative in- 
stinct without gratification, this congestion may grow to actual inflam- 
mation. Among the other causes of orchitis are blows and penetrating 
wounds implicating the testicles, abrasions of the scrotum by a chain 
or rope passing inside the thigh, contusions and frictions on the gland 
under rapid paces or heavy draught, compression of the blood-vessels of 
the spermatic cord by the inguinal ring under the same circumstances, 
and finally, sympathetic disturbance in cases of disease of the kidneys, 
bladder, or urethra. Stimulants of the generative functions, like rue, 
savin, tansy, cantharides, and damiaua may also be accessory causes of 
congestion and inflammation. Finally, certain specific diseases like 
mat du co'it, glanders, and tuberculosis, localized in the testicles, will 
cause inflammation. Apart from actual wounds of the parts the symp- 
toms of orchitis are swelling, heat, and tenderness of the testicles, 
straddling with the hind legs alike in standing and walking, stiffness 
and dragging of the hind limbs or of the limb on the affected side, 
arching of the loins, abdominal pain, manifested by glancing back at 
the flank, with more or less fever, elevated body temperature, acceler. 
ated pulse and breathing, inappetence, and dullness. In bad cases the 
scanty urine may be reddish and the swelling may extend to the skin 
and envelopes of the testicle, which may become thickened and doughy r 
pitting on pressure. The swelling may be so much greater in the con- 

135 



136 

voluted excretory duct along the upper border of the testicle as to sug- 
gest the presence of a second stone. Even in the more violent attacks 
the intense suffering abates somewhat on the second or third day. If 
it lasts longer it is likely to give rise to the formation of matter (ab- 
scess). In exceptional cases the testicle is struck with gangrene or 
death. Improvement may go on slowly to complete recovery, or the 
malady may subside into a subacute and chronic form with induration. 
Matter (abscess) may be recognized by the presence of a soft spot, 
where pressure with two fingers will detect fluctuation from one to 
the other. When there is liquid exudation into the scrotum, or sack, 
fluctuation may also be felt, but the liquid can be made out to be 
around the testicle and can be pressed up into the abdomen through 
the inguinal canal. When abscess occurs in the cord the matter may 
escape into the scrotal sack and cavity of the abdomen and pyaemia 
may follow. 

Treatment consists in perfect rest and quietude, the administration of 
a purgative (1 pound to 1J pounds Glauber's salts), and the local appli- 
cation of an astringent lotion (acetate of lead 2 drams, extract of bella- 
donna 2 drams, and water 1 quart) upon soft rags or cotton wool, kept 
in contact with the part by a suspensory bandage. This bandage, of 
great value for support, may be. made nearly triangular and tied to a 
girth around the loins and to the upper part of the same surcingle by 
two bands carried backward and upward between the thighs. In severe 
cases scarifications one-fourth inch deep serve to relieve vascular ten- 
sion. When abscess is threatened its formation may be favored by 
warm fomentations or poultices, and on the occurrence of fluctuation 
the knife may be employed to give free escape to the pus. The result- 
ing cavity may be injected daily with a weak carbolic acid lotion, or 
salol may be introduced. The same agents may be used on a gland 
threatened with gangrene, but its prompt removal by castration is to 
be preferred, antiseptics being applied freely to the resulting cavity. 

SAEOOOELE. 

This is an enlarged and indurated condition of the gland resulting 
from chronic inflammation, though it is often associated with a specific 
deposit like glanders. In this condition the natural structure of the 
gland has given place to embryonal tissue (small, round cells, with a 
few fibrous bundles), and its restoration to health is very improbable. 
Apart from active inflammation, it may increase very slowly. The dis- 
eased testicle is enlarged, firm, non-elastic, and comparatively insensi- 
ble. The skin of the scrotum is tense, and it may be cedematous (pit- 
ting on pressure), as are the deeper envelopes and spermatic cord. If 
liquid is present in the sack the symptoms are masked somewhat. 
As it increases it causes awkward, straddling, dragging movement of 
the hind limbs, or lameness on the affected side. The spermatic cord 
often increases at the same time with the testicle, and the inguinal 



137 

ring being thereby stretched and enlarged, a portion of intestine may 
escape into the sack, complicating the disease with hernia. 

The only rational and effective treatment is castration, and even this 
may not succeed when the disease is specific (glanders, tuberculosis). 

HYDROCELE— -DROPSY OF THE SCROTUM. 

This may be merely an accompaniment of dropsy of the abdomen, the 
cavity of which is continuous with that of the scrotum in horses. It 
may be the result, however, of local disease in the testicle, spermatic 
cord, or walls of the sack. 

The symptoms are enlargement of the scrotum, and fluctuation under 
the fingers, the testicle being recognized as floating in water. By press- 
ure the liquid is forced, in a slow stream, and with a perceptible thrill, 
into the abdomen. Sometimes the cord, or the scrotum, are thickened 
and pit on pressure. 

Treatment may be the same as for ascites, yet when the effusion has 
resulted from inflammation of the testicle orcord, astringent applications 
(chalk and vinegar) may be applied to these. Then if the liquid is not 
re absorbed under diuretics and tonics, it may be drawn off through the 
nozzle of a hypodermic syringe, which has been first passed through 
carbolic acid. In geldings it is best to dissect out the sacks. 

VARICOCELE. 

This is an enlargement of the venous network of the spermatic cord, 
and gives rise to general thickening of the cord from the testicle up to 
the ring. The same astringent dressings may be tried as in hydrocele, 
and this failing castration may be resorted to. 

ABNORMAL NUMBER OF TESTICLES. 

Sometimes one or both testicles are wanting ; in most such cases, 
however, they are merely partially developed, and retained in the in- 
guinal canal, or the abdomen (cryptorchid). In rare cases there may 
be a third testicle, the animal becoming to this extent a double monster. 
Teeth, hair, and other indications of a second foetus have likewise been 
found in the testicle, or scrotum. 

DEGENERATION OF THE TESTICLES. 

The testicles may become the seat of fibrous, calcareous, fatty, carti- 
laginous, or cystic degeneration, for all of which the appropriate treat- 
ment is castration. They also become the seat of cancer, glanders, or 
tuberculosis, and castration is requisite, though with less hope of ar- 
resting the disease. Finally they may become infested with cystic 
tape- worms, or the armed round worm (sclerostomum equinum). 



138 

WARTS ON THE PENIS. 

These are best removed by seizing them between the thumb and fore- 
finger and twisting them off. Or they may be cut off with scissors and 
the roots cauterized with nitrate of silver. 

DEGENERATION OF PENIS — PAPILLOMA, EPITHELIOMA. 

The penis of the horse is subject to great cauliflower-like growths on 
its free end, which extend back into the substance of the organ, obstruct 
the passage of urine, and cause very fetid discharges. The only resort 
is to cut them off, together with whatever portion of the penis has be- 
come diseased and indurated. The operation, which should be per- 
formed by a veterinary surgeon, consists in cutting through the organ 
from its upper to its lower aspect, twisting or tying the two dorsal 
arteries and leaving the urethra longer by half an inch to 1 inch than 
the adjacent structures. 

EXTRAVASATION OF BLOOD IN THE PENIS. 

As the result of kicks, blows, or of forcible striking of the yard on 
the thighs of the mare which it has failed to enter, the penis may be- 
come the seat of effusion of blood from one or more ruptured blood- 
vessels. This gives rise to a more or less extensive swelling on one or 
more sides, followed by some heat and inflammation, and on recovery a 
serious curving of the organ. The treatment in the early stages may 
be the application of lotions, of alum, or other astringents, to limit the 
amount of effusion and favor absorption. The penis should be sus- 
pended in a sling. 

PARALYSIS OF THE PENIS. 

This results from blows and other injuries, and also in some cases 
from too frequent and exhausting service. The yard hangs from the 
sheath, flaccid, pendulous, and often cold. The passage of urine occurs 
with lessened force, and especially without the final jets. In cases of 
local injury the inflammation should first be subdued by astringent and 
emollient lotions, and in all cases the system should be invigorated by 
nourishing diet, while 30-grain doses of nux vomica are given twice a 
day. Finalty, a weak current of electricity sent through the penis from 
just beneath the anus to the free portion of the yard, continued for ten 
or fifteen minutes and repeated daily, may prove successful. 

SELF-ABUSE — MASTURBATION 

Some stallions acquire this vicious habit, stimulating the sexual in- 
stinct to the discharge of semen, by rubbing the penis against the belly 
or between the fore limbs. The only remedy is a mechanical one, the 
fixing of a net under the penis in such fashion as will prevent the ex- 
tension of the penis, or so prick the organ as to compel the animal to 
desist through pain. 



139 

MAL DU COIT — DOURINE. 

This is propagated, like syphilis, by the act of copulation and affects 
stallionsand mares. It has been long known in Northern Africa, Arabia, 
and Continental Europe. It was imported into Illinois in 1882 in a 
Percheron horse. 

From one to ten days after copulation, or in stallions it may be after 
some weeks, there is irritation, swelling, and a livid redness of the ex- 
ternal organs of generation, sometimes followed by the eruption of small 
blisters one-fifth of an inch across, on the penis, the vulva, clitoris, and 
vagina, and the subsequent rupture of these vesicles and the forma- 
tion of ulcers or small open sores. Vesicles have not been noticed in 
this disease in the dry climate of Illinois. In the mare there is frequent 
contraction of the vulva, urination, and the discharge of a watery and 
later a thick viscid liquid of a whitish, yellowish, or reddish color, which 
collects on and soils the tail. The swelling of the vulva increases and 
decreases alternately, affecting one part more than another and giving 
a distorted appearance to the opening. The affection of the skin leads 
to the appearance of circular white spots, which may remain distinct or 
coalesce into extensive patches which persist for months. This with 
the soiled tail, red, swollen, puckered, and distorted vulva, and an in- 
creasing weakness and paralysis of the hind limbs, serve to characterize 
the affection. The mare rarely breeds, but will take the male and thus 
propagate the disease. The disease winds up with great emaciation 
and stupidity, and death in four months to two years. In horses which 
serve few mares there may be only swelling of the sheath for a year, 
but with frequent copulation the progress is more rapid. The penis 
may be enlarged, shrunken, or distorted; the testicles are unusually 
pendant and may be enlarged or wasted and flabby; the skin, as in the 
mare, shows white spots and patches. Later the penis becomes par- 
tially paralyzed and hangs out of the sheath ; swelling of the adjacent 
lymphatic glands (in the groin) and even of distant ones, and of the 
skin, appear, and the hind limbs become weak and unsteady. In some 
instances the glands under the jaw swell, and a discharge flows from 
the nose as in glanders. In other cases the itching of the skin leads to 
gnawing and extensive sores. Weakness, emaciation, and stupidity 
increase until death, in fatal cases, yet the sexual desire does not seem 
to fail. A stallion without sense to eat except when food was put in 
his mouth, would still neigh and seek to follow mares. In mild cases 
an apparent recovery may ensue, and through such animals the disease 
is propagated to new localities to be roused into activity and extension 
under the stimulus of service. The diseased nerve centers are the seat 
of cryptogamic growths. (Thannhoffer). 

Treatment of the malady has proved eminently unsatisfactory It be- 
longs to the purely contagious diseases, and should be stamped out by 
the remorseless slaughter or castration of every horse or mare that has 
had sexual congress with a diseased animal. A provision for Govern- 



140 

ment indemnity for the animals so destroyed or castrated, and a severe 
penalty for putting any such animal to breeding, would serve as effectual 
accessory resorts. 

CASTRATION OF STALLIONS. 

This is usually done at one year old, but may be accomplished at a 
few weeks old, at the expense of an imperfect development of the fore 
parts. The simplicity and safety of the operation are greatest in the 
young. The delay till two, three, or four years old will secure a better 
development and carriage of the fore parts. The essential part of 
castration is the safe removal or destruction of the testicle and the 
arrest or prevention of bleeding from the spermatic artery found in 
the anterior part of the cord. Into the many methods of accomplish- 
ing this, limited space forbids us to enter here, so that the method most 
commonly adopted, castration by clamps, will alone be noticed. The 
animal having been thrown on his left side, and the right hind foot 
drawn up on the shoulder, the exposed scrotum, penis, and sheath are 
washed with soap and water, any concretion of sebum being carefully 
removed from the bilocular cavity in the end of the penis. The left 
spermatic cord, just above the testicle, is now seized in the left hand, 
so as to render the skin tense over the stone, and the right hand, armed 
with the knife, makes an incision from before backward, about three- 
fourths of an inch from and parallel to the median line between the 
thighs, deep enough to expose the testicle and long enough to allow 
that organ to start out through the skin. At the moment of making 
this incision the left hand must grasp the cord very firmly, otherwise 
the sudden retraction of the testicle by the cremaster muscle may draw 
it out of the hand and upwards through the canal and even into the 
abdomen. In a few seconds, when the struggle and retraction have 
ceased, the knife is inserted through the cord, between its anterior and 
posterior portions and the latter, the one which the muscle retracts, is 
cut completely through. The testicle will now hang limp and there is 
no longer any tendency to retraction. It should be pulled down until 
it will no longer hang loose below the wound and the clamps applied 
around the still attached portion of the cord, close up to the skin. The 
clamps, which may be made of any tough wood, are grooved along the 
center of the surfaces opposed to each other, thereby fulfilling two im- 
portant indications, (a) enabling the clamps to hold more securely and 
(b) providing for the application of an antiseptic to the cord. For this 
purpose a dram of sulphate of copper may be mixed with an ounce of 
lard and pressed into the groove in the face of each clamp. In apply- 
ing the clamp over the cord it should be drawn so close with pincers as 
to press out all blood from the compressed cord and destroy its vitality, 
and the cord applied upon the compressing clamps should be so hard- 
twined that it will not stretch later and slacken the hold. When the 
clamp has been fixed the testicle is cut off one-half to 1 inch below it, 



141 

and the clamp may be left thus for twenty-four hours ; then, by cutting 
the cord around one end of the clamp, the latter may be opened and the 
stump liberated, without auy danger of bleeding. Should the stump 
hang out of the wound it should be pushed inside with the finger and 
left there. The wound should begin to discharge white matter on the 
second day in hot weather, or the third in cold, and from that time a 
good recovery may be expected. 

CONDITIONS FAVORABLE TO SUCCESSFUL CASTRATION. 

The young horse suffers less from castration than the old, and very 
rarely perishes. Good health in the subject is all important. Castra- 
tion should never be attempted during the prevalence of strangles, in- 
fluenza, catarrhal fever, contagious pleurisy, bronchitis, pneumonia, 
purpura hemorrhagica, or other specific disease, nor on subjects that 
have been kept in close, illy ventilated, filthy buildings, where the 
system is liable to have been charged with putrid bacteria or other 
products. Warm weather is to be preferred to cold, but the fly time 
should be avoided or the flies kept at a distance by the application of 
a watery solution of tar, carbolic acid, or camphor to the wound. 

CASTRATION OF CRYPTORCHIDS (RIDGLINGS). 

This is the removal of a testicle or testicles that have failed to de- 
scend into the scrotum, but have been detained in the inguinal canal 
or inside the abdomen. The manipulation requires an accurate an- 
atomical knowledge of the parts, and special skill, experience, and 
manual dexterity, and can not be made clear to the unprofessional mind 
in a short notice. It consists, however, in the discovery and removal 
of the missing gland by exploring through the natural channel (the 
inguinal canal), or, in case it is absent, through the inguinal ring or 
through an artificial opening made in front and above that channel be- 
tween the abdominal muscles and the- strong fascia on the inner side 
of the thigh (Poupart's ligament). Whatever method is used, the skin, 
hands, and instruments should be rendered aseptic with a solution of 
murcuric chloride 1 part; water 2,000 parts (a carbolic acid lotion 
for the instruments), and the spermatic cord is best torn through by the 
ecraseur. In many such cases, too, it is desirable to sew up the external 
wound and keep the animal still, to favor healing of the wound by 
adhesion. 

PAIN AFTER CASTRATION. 

Some horses are pained and very restless for some hours after castra- 
tion, and this may extend to cramps of the bowels and violent colic. 
This is best kept in check by carefully rubbing the patient dry when he 
rises from the operation, and then leading him in hand for some time. 
If the pain still persists a dose of laudanum (1 ounce for an adult) may 
be given 



142 

BLEEDING AFTER CASTRATION. 

Bleeding from the wound in the scrotum and from the little artery 
in the posterior portion of the spermatic cord always occurs, and in 
warm weather may appear to be quite free. It scarcely ever lasts, 
however, over fifteen minutes, and is easily checked by dashing cold 
water against the part. 

Bleeding from the spermatic artery in the anterior part of the cord 
may be dangerous when due precaution has not been taken to prevent 
it. In such case the stump of the cord should be sought for and the 
artery twisted with artery forceps or tied with a silk thread. If the 
stump can not be found, pledgets of tow wet with tincture of muriat6 
of iron may be stuffed into the canal to favor the formation of clot and 
the closure of the artery. 

STRANGULATED SPERMATIC CORD. 

If in castration the cord is left too long, so as to hang out of the 
wound, the skin wound in contracting grasps and strangles it, pre- 
venting the free return of blood and causing a steadily advancing 
swelling. In addition the cord becomes adherent to the lips of the 
wound in the skin, whence it derives an increased supply of blood, 
and is thereby stimulated to more rapid swelling. The subject walks 
stiffly, with straddling gait, loses appetite, and has a rapid pulse and 
high fever. Examination of the wound discloses the partial closure of 
the skin wound, and the protrusion from its lips of the end of the cord, 
red, tense, and varying in size from a hazel-nut upward. If there is 
no material swelling and little protrusion the wound may be enlarged 
with the knife and the end of the cord broken loose from any connec- 
tion with the slun, and pushed up inside. If the swelling is larger the 
mass constitutes a tumor, and must be removed. (See below.) 

SWELLING OF THE SHEATH, PENIS, AND ABDOMEN. 

This occurs in certain unhealthy states of the system, in unhealthy 
seasons, as the result of operating without cleansing the sheath and 
penis, or of keeping the subject in a filthy, impure building, as the 
result of infecting the wound by hands or instruments bearing septic 
bacteria, or as the result of premature closure of the wound, and im- 
prisonment of matter. 

Pure air and cleanliness of groin and wound are to be secured. 
Antiseptics, like the mercuric chloride lotion (1 part to 2,000) are to be 
applied to the parts; the wound, if closed, is to be opened anew, any 
accumulated matter or blood washed out, and the antiseptic liquid 
freely applied. The most teuse or dependent parts of the swelling in 
sheath or penis, or beneath the belly, should be pricked at intervals 
of 3 or 4 inches, and to a depth of half an inch, and antiseptics freely 
Vised to the surface. Fomentations with warm water may also be used 



143 

to favor oozing from the incisions and to encourage the formation of 
white matter in the original wounds, which must not be allowed to close 
again at once. A free, eream-like discharge implies a healthy action in 
the sore, and is the precursor of recovery. 

PHYMOSIS AND PARAPHIMOSIS. 

In cases of swelling, as above, the penis may be imprisoned within 
the sheath (phymosis) or protruded and swollen so that it can not be 
retracted into it (paraphymosis). In these cases the treatment indi- 
cated above, and especially the scarifications, will prove a useful pre- 
liminary resort. The use of astringent lotions is always desirable, and 
in case of the protruded penis the application of an elastic or simple 
linen bandage, so as to press out the blood and accumulated fluid, will 
enable the operator to return it. 

TUMORS ON THE SPERMATIC CORD. 

These are due to rough handling or dragging upon the cord in castra- 
tion, to strangulation of unduly long cords in the external wound, to 
adhesion of the end of the cord to the skin, to inflammation of the cord 
succeeding exposure to cold or wet, or to the presence of septic or 
irritant matters. These tumors give rise to a stiff, straddling gait, and 
may be felt as hard masses in the groin connected above with the cord. 
They may continue to grow slowly for many years until they reach a 
weight of 15 or 20 pounds, and contract adhesions to all surrounding 
parts. If disconnected from the skin and inguinal canal they may be 
removed in the same manner as the testicle, while if larger and firmly 
adherent to the skin and surrounding parts generally they must be care- 
fully dissected from the parts, the arteries being tied as they are reached 
and the cord finally torn through with an ecraseur. When the cord 
has become swollen and indurated up into the abdomen such removal is 
impossible, though a partial destruction of the mass may still be at- 
tempted by passing white hot pointed irons upward toward the inguinal 
ring in the center of the thickened and indurated cord. 

CASTRATION BY THE COVERED OPERATION. 

This is only required in case of hernia or protrusion of bowels or 
omentum into the sack of the scrotum, and consists in the return of 
the hernia and the application of the caustic clamps over the cord and 
inner walls of the inguinal canal, so that the walls of the latter become 
adherent above the clamps, the canal is obliterated, and further pro- 
trusion is hindered. For the full description of this and of the opera- 
tion for hernia in geldings, see article on hernia. 

CASTRATION OP THE MARE. 

Castration is a much more dangerous operation in the mare than in the 
females of other domesticated quadrupeds, and should never be resorted 



144 

to except in animals tbat become unmanageable on tbe recurrence of 
heat, and tbat will not breed or tbat are utterly uusuited to breeding. 
Formerly tbe operation was extensively practiced in Europe, tbe incision 
being made tbrougb tbe flauk, and a large proportion of tbe subjects 
perisbiug. By operating tbrougb tbe vagina tbe risk can be largely 
obviated, as tbe danger of unbealthy inflammation in tbe wound is 
greatly lessened. Tbe animal sbould be fixed in a trevis, witb each foot 
fixed to a post and a sling placed under tbe body, or, better, it may be 
thrown and put under chloroform. The manual operation demands 
special professional knowledge and skill, but it consists essentially in 
making an opening through the roof of the vaginajust above the neck 
of the womb, then following with the hand each horn of the womb 
until the ovary on tbat side is reached and grasped between the lips of 
forceps and twisted off. It might be torn off by an ecraseur especially 
constructed for the purpose. The straining tbat follows the operation 
may be checked by ounce doses of laudanum, and any risk of protru- 
sion of the bowels may be obviated by applying the truss advised to 
prevent eversiou of the womb. To further prevent <the pressure of 
the abdominal contents against tbe vaginal wound the mare should 
be tied short and high for twenty- four or forty-eight hours, after which 
I have found it best to remove the truss and allow the privilege of 
lying down. Another important point is to give bran masbes and 
other laxative diet only, and in moderate quantity, for a fortnigbt, and 
to unload the rectum by copious injections of w r arni water in case it 
should threaten to become impacted. 

STERILITY. 

Sterility may be in the male or in the female. If due to the stallion, 
then all the mares put to him remain barren; if due to tbe mare, she 
alone fails to conceive. 

In tbe stallion sterility may be due to the following causes : (a) Im- 
perfect development of the testicles, as in cases in which they are re- 
tained within the abdomen; (b) inflammation of the testicles, resulting 
in induration ; (c) fatty degeneration of the testicles, in stallions lib- 
erally fed on starchy food and not sufficiently exercised ; (d) fatty 
degeneration of the excretory ducts of the testicles (vasa deferentia) ; 
(e) inflammation or ulceration of these ducts; (/) inflammation or ulcer- 
ation of the mucous membrane covering the penis; (g) injuries to the 
penis from blows (often causing paralysis) ; (h) warty growths on the 
end of the penis; (i) tumors of other kinds (largely pigmentary) af- 
fecting the testicles or penis; (j) nervous diseases which abolish the 
sexual appetite, or that control over the muscles which is essential to 
the act of coition; (k) azoturia with resulting weakness or paralysis 
of the muscles of the loins or the front of the thigh (above the stifle); 
(I) ossification (anchylosis) of tbe joints of the back or loins, which 
renders the animal unable to rear or mount; (m) spavins, ringbones. 



145 

or other painful affections of the hind limbs, the pain of which in 
mounting causes the animal to suddenly stop short in the act. In the 
first three of these only (a, &, and c) is there real sterility in the sense 
of the non development or imperfect development of the male vivifying 
element (spermatozoa). In the other examples the secretion may be 
perfect in kind and amount, but as copulation is prevented it can not 
reach and impregnate the ovum. 

In the mare barrenness is equally due to a variety of causes. In a 
number of breeding studs the proportion of sterile mares has varied 
from 20 to 40 per cent. It may be due to : (a) Imperfect development 
of the ovary and non-maturation of ova; (b) cystic or other tumors of 
the ovary; (c) fatty degeneration of the ovary in very obese, pampered 
mares; (d) fatty degeneration of the excretory tubes of the ovaries 
(fallopian tubes); (e) catarrh of the womb, with muco-purulent dis- 
charge; (/) irritable condition of the womb, with profuse secretion, 
straining, and ejection of the semen; (g) nervous irritability, leading 
to the same expulsion of the male element; (h) high condition (plethora) 
with profuse secretion and excitement; (i) low condition with imperfect 
maturation of the ova and lack of sexual desire; (j) poor feeding, over- 
work, and chronic debilitating diseases, as leading to the condition just 
named ; (A;) closure of the neck of the womb, temporarily by spasm, or 
permanently by inflammation and induration; (I) closure of the entrance 
to the vagina 'through imperforate hymen, a rare though not unknown 
condition in the mare; (m) acquired indisposition to breed, seen in old, 
hard worked mares, which are first put to the stallion when aged ; (n) 
change of climate has repeatedly been followed by barrenness; (o) hy- 
bridity, which in male and female alike, usually entails sterility. 

The treatment of the majority of these conditions will be found dealt 
with in other parts of this work, so that it is only necessary here to 
name them as causes. Some, however, must be specially referred to in 
this place. Stallions with undescended testicles are beyond the reach 
of medicine, and should be castrated and devoted to other uses. In- 
durated testicles may sometimes be remedied in the early stages by 
smearing with a weak iodine ointment daily for a length of time, and 
at the same time invigorating the system by liberal feeding and judi- 
cious work. Fatty degeneration is best met by an albuminoid diet 
(wheat bran, cotton-seed meal, rape cake) and constant, well regulated 
work. Saccharine, starchy and fatty food (potatoes, wheat, corn, etc.) 
are to be specially avoided. In the mare one diseased and irritable 
ovary should be removed, to do*away with the resulting excitability of 
the remainder of the generative organs. An irritable womb, with fre- 
quent straining and the ejection of a profuse secretion, may sometimes 
be corrected by a restricted diet and full but well regulated work. 
Even fatigue will act beneficially in some such cases, hence the practice 
of the Arab riding his mare to exhaustion just before service. The 
perspiration in such a case, like the action of a purgative or the abstrac- 
11035 10 



146 

tion of blood just before service, benefits, by rendering the blood-ves- 
sels less full, by lessening secretion in tbe womb and elsewhere, and 
thus counteracting the tendency to the ejection and loss of semen. If 
these means are ineffectual a full dose of camphor (2 drams) or of sal- 
acin may at times assist. Low condition and anaemia demands jnst the 
opposite kind of treatment — rich, nourishing, albuminoid food, bitter 
tonics (gentian), sunshine, gentle exercise, liberal grooming, and sup- 
porting treatment generally are here in order. Spasmodic closure of 
the neck of the womb is common and is easily remedied in the mare by 
dilatation with the fingers. 

The hand, smeared with belladonna ointment and with the fingers 
drawn into the form of a cone, is introduced through the vagina until 
the projecting, rounded neck of the womb is felt at its anterior end. 
This is opened by the careful insertion of one finger at a time until the 
fingers have been passed through the constricted neck into the open 
cavity of the womb. The introduction is made with a gentle, rotary mo- 
tion, and all precipitate violence is avoided, as abrasion, laceration, or 
other cause of irritation is likely to interfere with the retention of the 
semen and with impregnation. If the neck of the womb is rigid and 
unyielding from the induration which follows inflammation — a rare con- 
dition in the mare, though common in the cow — more force will be req- 
uisite, and it may even be needful to incise the neck to the depth of 
one-sixth of an inch in four or more opposite directions, prior to forc- 
ible dilatation. The incision may be made with a probe-pointed knife, 
and should be done by a professional man if possible. The subsequent 
dilatation may be best effected by the slow expansion of sponge or sea- 
weed tents inserted into the narrow canal. In such cases it is best to 
let the wounds of the neck heal before putting to horse. An imperfo- 
rate hymen may be freely incised in a crucial manner until the passage 
will admit the human hand. An ordinary knife may be used for this 
purpose, and after the operation the stallion may be admitted at once 
or only after the wounds have healed. 

INDICATIONS OF PREGNANCY. 

As the mere fact of service by the stallion does not insure pregnancy, 
it is important that the result should be determined, to save the mare 
from unnecessary and dangerous work or medication when actually in 
foal and to obviate wasteful and needless precautions when she is not. 

The cessation and non-recurrence of the symptoms of heat (horsing) is 
a most significant though not infallible sign of conception. If the 
sexual excitement speedily subsides and the mare persistently refuses 
the stallion for a month, she is probably pregnant. In very exceptional 
cases a mare will accept a second or third service after weeks or months, 
though pregnant, and some mares will refuse the horse persistently, 
though conception has not taken place, and this in spite of warm 
weather, good condition of the mare, and liberal feeding. The recur- 



147 

rence of heat in the pregnant inare is most likely to take place in hot 
weather. If heat merely persists an undue length of time after service, 
or if it re-appears shortly after, in warm weather and in a compara- 
tively idle mare, on good feeding, it is less significant, while the per- 
sistent absence of heat under such conditions may be usually accepted 
as proof of conception. 

An unwonted gentleness and docility on the part of a previously irrita- 
ble or vicious mare, and supervening on service, is an excellent indica- 
tion of pregnancy, the generative instinct which caused the excitement 
having been satisfied. 

An increase of fat, with softness and flabbiness of muscle, a loss of 
energy, indisposition for active work, a manifestation of laziness, in- 
deed, and of fatigue early and easily induced, when preceded by service, 
will usually imply conception. 

Enlargement of the abdomen, especially in its lower third, with slight 
falling in beneath the loins and hollowness of the back are significant 
symptoms, though they may be entirely absent. Swelling and firmness 
of the udder, with the smoothing out of its wrinkles, is a suggestive 
sigu, even though it appears only at intervals during gestation. 

A steady increase in weight (1£ pounds daily) about the fourth or 
fifth mouth is a useful indication of preguancy. So is a swollen and red 
or bluish-red appearauce of the vaginal mucous membrane. 

From the seventh or eighth month onward the foal may be felt by the 
hand (palm or knuckles) pressed into the abdomen in front of the left 
stifle. The sudden push displaces the foal toward the opposite side of 
the womb, and as it floats back its hard body is felt to strike against 
the hand. If the pressure is maintained the movements of the live foal 
are felt, aud especially in the morning and after a drink of cold water, 
or during feeding. A drink of cold water will often stimulate the foetus 
to movements that may be seen by the eye, but an excess of iced water 
may prove injurious, even to the causing of abortion. Cold water 
dashed on the belly has a similar effect on the foetus and equally en- 
dangers abortion. 

Examination of the uterus with the oiled hand introduced into the 
rectum is still more satisfactory, aud if cautiously conducted no more 
dangerous. The rectum must be first emptied and then the hand car- 
ried forward until it reaches the front edge of the pelvic bones below, 
aud pressed dowuward to ascertain the size and outline of the womb. 
In the unimpregnated state the vagina and womb can be felt as a sin- 
gle rounded tube, dividing in front to two smaller tubes (the horns of 
the womb). In the preguant mare not only the body of the womb is 
enlarged, but still more so one of the horns (right or left), and on com- 
pression the latter is found to contain a hard, nodular body, floating in 
a liquid, which in the latter half of gestation may be stimulated by gen- 
tle pressure to manifest spontaneous movements. By this method the 
presence of the foetus may be determined as early as the third month. 



148 

If the complete natural outline of the virgin womb can not be made 
out, careful examination should always be made on the right and left 
side for the enlarged horn and its living contents. Should there still 
be difficulty the mare should be placed on an inclined plane, with her 
hind parts lowest, aud two assistants, standing on opposite sides of the 
body, should raise the lower part of the abdomen by a sheet passed 
beneath it. Finally the ear or stethoscope applied on the wall of the 
abdomen in front of the stifle may detect the beating of the foetal heart 
(one hundred and twenty-five per minute) aud a blowing sound (the 
uterine sough), much less rapid and corresponding to the number of 
the pulse of the dam. It is heard most satisfactorily after the sixth or 
eighth month and in the absence of active rumbling of the bowels of 
the dam. 

DURATION OF PREGNANCY. 

Mares usually go about eleven months with young, though first preg- 
nancies often last a year. Foals have lived when born at the three 
hundredth day, so with others carried till the four hundredth day. 
With the longer pregnancies there is a greater probability of male off- 
spring. 

HYGIENE OF THE PREGNANT MARE. 

The pregnant mare should not be exposed to teasing by a young and 
ardent stallion, nor should she be overworked or fatigued, particularly 
under the saddle or 0:1 uneveu ground. Yet exercise is beneficial to 
both mother and offspring, and in the absence of moderate work the 
breeding mare should be kept in a lot where she can take exercise at 
will. 

The food should be liberal, but not fattening, oats, bran, sound hay, 
and other foods rich in the principles which form flesh and bone being 
especially indicated. All aliments that tend to indigestion are to be 
especially avoided. Thus rank, aqueous, rapidly grown grass and other 
green food, partially ripe rye grass, millet, Hungarian grass, vetches, 
pease, beans, or maize are objection able, -as is over-ripe fibrous, in nu- 
tritious hay, or that which has been injured and rendered musty by 
wet, or that which is infested with smut or ergot. Food that tends tocos- 
tiveness should be avoided. Water given often, and at a temperature 
considerably above freezing, will avoid the dangers of indigestions and 
abortions which result from taking too much ice-cold water at onetime. 
Very cold or frozen food is objectionable in the same sense. Severe 
surgical operations aud medicines that act violently on the womb, bow- 
els, or kidneys are to be avoided as being liable to cause abortion. Con- 
stipation should be corrected, if possible, by bran mashes, carrots, or 
beets, seconded by excercise, and if a medicinal laxative is required it 
should be olive oil or other equally bland agent. 

The stall of the pregnant mare should not be too narrow so as to 
cramp her when lying down, or to eDtail violent efforts in getting up, 



149 

and it should not slope too muck from the front backward, as this 
throws the weight of the uterus back on the pelvis and endangers pro- 
trusions and even abortion. Violent mental impressions are to be 
avoided, for though the majority of mares are not affected thereby, yet a 
certain number are so profoundly impressed that peculiarities and dis- 
tortions are entailed on the offspring. Hence, there is wisdom shown in 
banishing parti-colored or objectionably tinted animals, and those that 
show deformities or faulty conformation. Hence, too, the importance 
of preventing prolonged acute suffering by the pregnant mare, as cer- 
tain troubles of the eyes, feet, and joints in the foals have been clearly 
traced to the concentration of the mother's mind on corresponding 
injured organs in herself. Sire and dam alike tend to reproduce their 
personal defects which predispose to disease, but the dam is far more 
likely to perpetuate the evil in her progeny which was carried while 
she was personally enduring severe suffering caused by such defects. 
Hence, an active bone spavin or ring-bone, causing lameness, is more ob- 
jectionable than that in which the inflammation and lameness have both 
passed, and an active ophthalmia is more to be feared than even an old 
cataract. For this reason all active diseases in the breeding mare 
should be soothed and abated at as early a moment as possible. 

EXTRA-UTERINE GESTATION. 

It is rare in the domestic animals to find the fetus developed else- 
where than iu the womb. The exceptional forms are those in which 
the sperm of the male, making its way through the womb and Fallopian 
tubes, impregnates the ovum prior to its escape, and in which the now 
vitalized and growing ovum, by reason of its gradually increasing size, 
becomes imprisoned and fails to escape into the womb. The arrest of 
the ovum may be in the substance of the ovary itself (ovarian preg- 
nancy), in the Fallopian tube (tubal pregnancy), or when by its contin- 
uous enlargement it has ruptured its envelopes so that it escapes into 
the cavity of the abdomen, it may become attached to any part of the 
serous membrane and draw its nourishment directly from that (abdom- 
inal pregnancy). Iu all such cases there is an increase and enlarge- 
ment of the capillary blood-vessels at the point to which the embryo 
has attached itself so as to furnish the needful nutriment for the grow- 
ing offspring. 

All appreciable symptoms are absent, unless from the death of 
the foetus, or its interference with normal functions, general disorder 
and indications of parturition supervene. If these occur later than the 
natural time for parturition they are the more significant. There may 
be general malaise, loss of appetite, elevated temperature, accelerated 
pulse, with or without distinct labor pains. Examination with the 
oiled hand in the rectum will reveal the womb of the natural uuim- 
pregnated size and shape and with both horns of one size. Further 
exploration may detect an elastic mass apart from the womb and in the 



150 

interior of which may be felt the characteristic solid body of thefcBtus. 
If the latter is s<"ill alive and can be stimulated to move the evidence 
is even more perfect. The foetus may die and be carried for years, its 
soft structures becoming absorbed so as to leave only the bones, or by 
pressure it may form a fistulous opening through the abdominal walls, 
or less frequently through the vagina or rectum. In the latter cases the 
best course is to favor the expulsion of the foal and to wash out the re- 
sulting cavity with a solution of carbolic acid 1 part to water 50 parts. 
This may be repeated daily. Where there i3 no spontaneous opening 
it is iujudicous to interfere, as the danger from the retention of the 
foetus is less than that from septic fermentations in the enormous foetal 
sack when that has been opened to the air. 

MOLES— ANIDIAN MONSTERS. 

These are evidently products of conception, in which the impregnated 
ovum has failed to develop naturally, and presents only a chaotic mass 
of skin, hair, bones, muscles, etc., attached to the inner surface of the 
womb by an umbilical cord, which is itself often shriveled and wasted. 
They are usually accompanied by a well-developed foetus, so that the 
mole may be looked upon as a twin which has undergone arrest and 
vitiation of development. They are expelled by the ordinary process 
of parturition, and usually, at the same time, with the normally devel- 
oped offspring. 

CYSTIC DISEASE OP THE WALLS OF THE WOMB— VESICULAR MOLE. 

This condition appears to be due to hypertrophy (enlargement) of 
the villi on the inner surface of the womb, which become greatly in- 
creased in number and hollowed out internally into a series of cysts or 
pouches containing liquid. Unlike the true mole, therefore, they appear 
to be disease of the maternal structure of the womb rather than of the 
product of conception. Eodet, in a case of this kind, which had pro- 
duced active labor pains, quieted the disorder with anodynes and secured 
a recovery. Where this is not available -attempts may be made to re- 
move the mass with the ecraseur or otherwise, following this up with 
antiseptic injections, as advised under the last heading. 

DROPSY OF THE WOMB. 

This appears as a result of some disease of the walls of the womb, 
but has been frequently observed after sexual congress, and has, there- 
fore, been confounded with pregnancy. The symptoms are those of 
pregnancy, but without any movements of the foetus and without the 
detection of any solid body in the womb when examined with the oiled 
hand in the rectum. At the end of four or eight months there are 
signs of parturition or of frequent straining to pass urine, and after a 
time the liquid is discharged clear and watery, or muddy, thick, and 
fetid. The hand introduced into the womb can detect neither foetus 



151 

nor foetal membrane. If the neck of the womb closes the liquid may 
accumulate a second time, or even a third, if no means are taken to 
correct the tendency. The best resort is to remove any diseased product 
that may be found attached to the walls of the womb, and to inject it 
daily with a warm solution of carbolic acid 2 drams, chloride of zinc 
one half dram, water, 1 quart. A course of bitter tonics, gentian 2 
drams, sulphate of iron 2 drams, daily, should be given, and a nutri- 
tious, easily digested and slightly laxative diet allowed. 

DROPSY OF THE AMNIOS. 

This differs from simple dropsy of the womb in that the fluid collects 
in the inner of the two water bags (that in which the foal floats) and 
not in the otherwise void cavity of the womb. This affection can oc- 
cur only in the pregnant animal, while dropsy of the womb occurs in 
the unimpregnated. The blood of the pregnant, mare contains an ex- 
cess of water and a smaller proportion of albumen and red globules, and 
when this is still further aggravated by poor feeding, and other unhy- 
gienic conditions, there is developed the tendency to liquid transuda- 
tion from the vessels and dropsy. As the watery condition of the blood 
increases with advancing pregnancy, so dropsy of the amnios is a dis- 
ease of the last four or five months of gestation. The abdomen is large 
and pendulous, and the swelling fluctuates under pressure, though the 
solid body of the foetus can still be felt to strike against the hand 
pressed into the swelling. If the hand is introduced into the vagina 
the womb is found to be tense and round, with the projecting rounded 
neck effaced, while the hand in the rectum will detect the rounded 
swollen mass of the womb so firm and tense that the body of the foetus 
can not be felt within it. The mare moves weakly and unsteadily on its 
limbs, having difficulty in supporting the great weight, and in bad 
cases there may be loss of appetite, stocking (dropsy) of the hind limbs, 
difficult breathing, and colicky pains. The tension may lead to abortion, 
or a slow, laborious parturition may occur at the usual time. 

Treatment consists in relieving the tension and accumulation by 
puncturing the foetal membrane with a cannula and trochar introduced 
through the neck of the womb and the withdrawal of the trochar so as 
to leave the canula in situ. Or the membranes may be punctured with 
the finger and the excess of liquid allowed to escape. This may bring 
on abortion, or the wound may close and gestation continue to the full 
term. A course of tonics (gentian root 2 drams, sulphate of iron 2 
drams, daily) will do much to fortify the system and counteract further 
excessive effusion. 

DROPSY OF THE LIMBS, PERINJEUM, AND ABDOMEN. 

The disposition to dropsy often shows itself in the hind and even in 
in the fore limbs, around and beneath the vulva (perinaeum) and be- 
neath the abdomen and chest. The affected parts are swollen and pit 



152 

on pressure, but are not especially tender, and subside more or less 
perfectly under exercise, hand rubbing, and bandages. In obstinate 
cases rubbing with tbe following liniment may be resorted to : Com- 
pound tincture of iodine, 2 ounces ; tannic acid, one-half dram ; water, 
10 ounces. It does not last over a day or two after parturition. 

CRAMPS OF TI1E HIND LIMBS. 

The pressure of the distended womb on the nerves ami blood-vessels 
of the pelvis, besides conducing to dropsy, occasionally causes cramps 
of the hind limbs. The limb is raised without flexing 1 he jotnts, the 
front of the hoof being directed toward the ground, or the spasms oc- 
curring intermittently the foot is kicked violently against the ground 
several times in rapid succession. The muscles are felt to be firm and 
rigid. The cramps may be promptly relieved by active nibbing, or by 
walking the animal about, and it does not reappear after parturition. 

CONSTIPATION. 

This may result from compression by the gravid womb, and is best 
corrected by a graduated allowance of boiled flaxseed. 

PARALYSIS. 

The pressure on the nerves of the pelvis is liable to cause paralysis 
of the hind limbs, or in the mare of the nerve of sight. These are ob- 
stinate until after parturition, when they recover spontaneously, or 
under a course of mix vomica and (locally) stimulating liniments. 

PROLONGED RETENTION OP THE FOETUS (FOAL). 

In the mare, though far less frequently than in the cow, parturition 
may not be completed at term, and the foal may continue to be carried 
in the womb for a number of months, to the serious, or even fatal in- 
jury of the mare. Hamon records one case in which the mare died 
after carrying the fcetus for seventeen mouths, and Caillier a similar re- 
sult after it had been carried twenty-two mouths. In these cases the 
fcetus retained its natural form, but in one reported by Gohier, the 
bones only were left in the womb amid a mass of apparently purulent 
matter. 

The cause may be any effective obstruction to the act of parturition, 
such as lack of contractile power in the womb, unduly strong (inflam- 
matory) adhesions between the womb and the foetal membraues, wrong 
presentation of the fcetus, contracted pelvis (from fracture, or disease 
of the bones), or disease and induration of the neck of the womb. 

The mere prolongation of gestation does not necessarily entail the 
death of the foal, hence the latter has been born alive at the four hun- 
dredth day. Even when the foal has perished, putrefaction does not 
set in unless the membranes (water bags) have been ruptured, and sep- 



153 

tic bacteria have been admitted to the interior of the womb. In the 
latter case a fetid decomposition advances rapidly, and the mare usu- 
ally perishes from poisoning with the putrid matters absorbed. 

At the natural period of parturition preparations are apparently made 
for that act. The vulva swells and discharges much mucus, the udder 
enlarges, the belly becomes more pendant, and the animal strains moie 
or less. No progress is made, however; there is not even opening of 
the neck of the womb, and after a time the symptoms subside. The 
mare usually refuses the male, yet there are exceptions to this rule. If 
the neck of the womb has been opened and putrefying changes have 
' set in iii its contents, the mare loses appetite and condition, pines, dis- 
charges an offensive matter from the generative passages, and dies of 
inflammation of the womb and putrid iufectiou. In other cases there is 
a slow wearing out of the strength and the mare finally dies of exhaus- 
tion. 

The treatment is such as will facilitate the expulsion of the foetus and 
its membranes, aud the subsequent washing out of the womb with dis- 
infectants. So long as the mouth of the womb is closed, time should be 
allowed for its natural dilatation, but if this does not come about after a 
day or two of straining the opening may be smeared with extract of bella- 
donna, aud the oiled baud, with the fingers and thumb drawn into the 
form of a cone, may be inserted by slow oscillating movements into the 
interior of the womb. The water bags may now be ruptured, any inal- 
preseutation rectified (see "Difficult Parturition"), and delivery effected. 
After removal of the membranes wash out the womb first with tepid 
water, and then with a solution of 2 ounces of borax in half a gallon of 
water. 

This injection may have to be repeated if a discharge sets in. The 
same course may be pursued even after prolonged retention. If the 
soft parts of the fcetus have been absorbed and the bones only left these 
must be carefully sought for aud removed, and subsequent daily injec- 
tions will be required for some time. In such cases, too, a course of iron 
tonics (sulphate of iron, 2 drams daily), will be highly beneficial in re- 
storing health and vigor. 

ABOETION. 

Abortion is, strictly speaking, the expulsion of the impregnated ovum 
at any period from the date of impregnation until the foal can survive 
out of the womb. If the foal is advanced enough to live it is premature 
parturition, and in the mare this may occur as early as the tenth month 
(three hundredth day). 

The mare may abort by reason of almost any cause that very pro- 
foundly disturbs the system. Hence very violent inflammations of im- 
portant internal organs (bowels, kidneys, bladder, lungs,) may induce 
abortion. Profuse diarrhea, whether occurring from the reckless use 
of purgatives, the consumption of irritants in the food, or a simple in- 
digestion is an effective cause. No less so is acute indigestion with 



154 

evolution of gas in the intestines (bloating). The presence of stone In 
the kidneys, ureters, bladder, or urethra may induce so much sympa- 
thetic disorder in the womb as to induce abortion. In exceptional cases 
wherein mares come in heat during gestation service by the stallion 
may cause abortion. Blows or pressure on the abdomen, rapid driving 
or riding of the pregnant mare, especially if she is soft and out of con- 
dition from idleness; the brutal use of the spur or whip, and the jolting 
and straining of travel by rail or boat are prolific causes. Bleeding the 
pregnant mare, a painful surgical operation, and the throwing and con- 
straint resorted to for an operation are other causes. Traveling on 
heavy, muddy roads, slips and falls on ice, and jumping must be added. 
The stimulation of the abdominal organs by a full drink of iced water 
may precipitate a miscarriage, as may exposure to a cold rain-storm or 
a very cold night after a warm day. Irritant poisons that act on the 
urinary or generative organs, such as Spauish flies, rue, savin, tansy, 
cotton-root bark, ergot of rye or other grasses, the smut of maize and 
other grain, and various fungi in musty fodder are additional causes. 
Frosted food, indigestible food, and above all green succulent vegetables 
in a frozen state have proved effective factors, and filthy, stagnant water 
is dangerous. Low condition in the dam and plethora have in opposite 
ways caused abortion, and hot relaxing stables and lack of exercise 
strongly conduce to it. The exhaustion of the sire by too frequent serv- 
ice, entailing debility of the offspring and disease of the foetus or of 
its envelopes, must be recognized as a further cause. 

The symptoms vary mainly according as the abortion is early or late 
in pregnancy. In the first month or two of pregnancy the mare may 
miscarry without observable symptoms, and the fact only appears by 
her coming in heat. If more closely observed a small clot of blood may 
be found behind her, in which a careful search reveals the rudiments 
of the foal. If the occurrence is somewhat later in gestation there will 
be some general disturbance, inappetence, neighing, and straining, and 
the small body of the foetus is expelled, enveloped in its membranes. 
Abortions during the later stages of pregnancy are attended with 
greater constitutional disturbance, and the process resembles normal 
parturition, with the aggravation that more effort and straining is req- 
uisite to force the foetus through the comparatively undilatable mouth 
of the womb. There is the swelling of the vulva, with mucus or even 
bloody discharge ; the abdomen droops, the flanks fall in, the udder fills, 
the mare looks at her flanks, paws with the fore feet and kicks with 
the hind, switches the tail, moves around uneasily, lies down and rises, 
strains, and, as in natural foaling, expels first mucus and blood, then 
the waters, and finally the foetus. This may occupy an hour or two, or 
it may be prolonged for a day or more, the symptoms subsiding for a 
time, only to reappear with renewed energy. If there is malpresenta- 
tion of the foetus it will hinder progress until rectified, as in difficult 



155 

parturition. Abortion may also be followed by the same accidents, as 
flooding, retention of the placenta, and leucorrhcea. 

The most important object in an impending abortion is to recognize 
it at as early a stage as possible, so that it may, if possible, be cut short 
and prevented. Any general indefinable illness in a preguant mare 
should lead to a close examination of the vulva as regards swelling, 
vascularity of its mucous membrane, and profuse mucous secretion, and 
above all any streak or staining of blood; also the condition of the ud- 
der, if that is congested and swollen. Any such indication, with colicky 
pains, straining, however little, and active movement of the foetus or 
entire absence of movement, are suggestive symptoms and should be 
duly counteracted. 

The changes in the vulva and udder, with a soiled and bloody condi- 
tion of the tail, may suggest an abortion already accomplished, and the 
examination with the hand in the vagina may detect the mouth of the 
womb soft and dilatable, and the interior of the Organ slightly ^filled with 
a bloody liquid. 

Treatment should be preventive if possible, and would embrace the 
avoidance of all causes mentioned, and particularly of such as may seem 
to be particularly operative in the particular case. Where abortions 
have already occurred in a stud, the especial cause, in the matter of food, 
water, exposure to injuries, overwork, lack of exercise, etc., may often 
be identified and removed. A most important point is to avoid all 
causes of constipation, diarrhea, indigestion, bloating, violent purga- 
tives, diuretics or other potent medicines, painful operations, and slip- 
pery roads, unless well frosted. 

When abortion is imminent the mare should be placed alone in a 
roomy, dark, quiet stall, and have the straining checked by some sedative. 
Laudanum is usually at hand and may be given in doses of 1 or 2 ounces, 
according to size, and repeated after two or three hours, and even daily 
if necessary. Chloroform or choral hydrate, 3 drams, may be substituted 
if more convenient. These should be given in a pint or quart of water, 
to avoid burning the mouth and throat. Or viburnum prunifolium,l 
ounce, may be given and repeated if necessary to prevent straining. 

When all measures fail and miscarriage proceeds, all that can be done 
is to assist in the removal of the foetus and its membranes, as in ordinary 
parturition. As in the case of retention of the foetus, it may be neces- 
sary after delivery to employ antiseptic injections into the womb to 
counteract putrid fermentation. This, however, is less requisite in the 
mare than in the cow, in which the prevalent contagious abortion must 
be counteracted by the persistent local use of antiseptics. After abor- 
tiou a careful hygiene is demanded, especially in the matter of pure air 
and easily digestible food. The mare should not be served again for a 
month or longer, and in no case until after all discharge from the vulva 
has ceased. 



156 

SYMPTOMS OF PARTURITION. 

As the period of parturition approaches the swelling of the udder 
bespeaks the cotniug event, the engorgement in exceptional cases ex- 
tending forward on the lower surface of the abdomen and even into the 
hind limbs. For about a week a serous fluid oozes from the teat and 
concretes as a yellow, wax like mass around its orifice. About twenty- 
four hours before the birth this gives place to a whitish, milky liquid, 
which falls upon and mats the hairs on the inner sides of the legs. 
Another symptom is enlargement of the vulva, with redness of its lin- 
ing membrane, and the escape of glairy mucus. The belly droops, the 
flunks fall in, and the loins may even become depressed. Finally the 
mare becomes uneasy, stops feeding, looks anxious, whisks her tail, and 
may lie down and rise again. In many mares this is not repeated, but 
the mare remains down ; violent contractions of the abdominal muscles 
ensue; after two or three pains the water-bags appear and burst, fol- 
lowed by the fore feet of the foa\ with the nose between the knees, and 
by a few more throes the foetus is expelled. In other cases the act is 
accomplished standing. The whole act may not occupy more than five 
or ten minutes. This, together with the disposition of the mare to avoid 
observation, renders the act one that is rarely seen by the attendants. 

The navel-string, which connects the foal to the membranes, is rupt- 
ured when the foetus falls to the ground, or when the mare rises, if 
she has been down, and the membranes are expelled a few minutes 
later. 

NATURAL PRESENTATION. 

When there is a single foal the common and desirable presentation 
is with the fore feet first, the nose between the knees, and with the 
front of the hoofs and knees and the forehead directed upward toward 
the anus, tail, and croup (Plate IX, fig. 1). . In this way the natural 
curvature of the body of the fcetus corresponds to the curve of the 
womb and genital passages, and particularly of the bony pelvis, and 
the foal passes with much greater ease thau if it were placed with its 
back downward toward the udder. When there is a twin birth the 
second foal usually comes with its hind feet first, and the backs of the 
legs, the points of the hocks, and the tail and croup are turned upward 
toward the anus and tail of the mare (Plate IX, fig. 2). In this way, 
even with a posterior presentation, the curvature of the body of the 
foal still corresponds to that of the passages, and its expulsion may 
be quite as easy as in anterior presentation. Any presentation aside 
from these two may be said to be abnormal and will be considered 
under " Difficult Parturition." 

DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 

With natural presentation this is a rare occurrence. The great 
length of the fore limbs and face entail, in the anterior presentation, 
the formation of a long cone, which dilates and glides through the 



157 

passages with comparative ease. Even with the hind feet first a simi- 
lar conical form is presented, and the process is rendered easy and 
quick. Difficulty and danger arise mainly from the act being brought 
on prematurely before the passages are sufficiently dilated, from nar- 
rowing of the pelvic bones or other mechanical obstruction in the 
passages, from monstrous distortions or duplications in the foetus, or 
from the turning back of one of the members so that the elongated 
conical or wedge-shaped outline is done away with. But prompt as is 
the normal parturition in the mare, difficult and delayed parturitions 
are surrounded by special dangers and require unusual precautions and 
skill. From the proclivity of the mare to unhealthy inflammations of 
the peritoneum and other abdomiual organs, penetrating wounds of the 
womb or vagina are liable to prove fatal. The contractions of the 
womb and abdominal walls are so powerful as to exhaust and benumb 
the arm of the assistant, and to endanger penetrating wounds of the 
genital organs. By reason of the looser connection of the foetal mem- 
branes with the womb, as compared with those of ruminants, the violent 
throes early detach these membranes throughout their whole extent, 
and the foal, being thus separated from the mother and thrown on its 
own resources, dies at an early stage of any protracted parturition. 
The foal rarely survives four hours after the onset of parturient throes. 
From the great length of the limbs and neck of the foal it is ex- 
tremely difficult to secure and bring up limb or head which has been 
turned back when it should have been presented. When assistance 
must be rendered the operator should don a thick woolen undershirt 
with the sleeves cut out at the shoulders. This protects the body and 
leaves the whole arm free for manipulation. Before inserting the arm 
it should be smeared with lard. This protects the skin against septic 
infection, and favors the introduction of the hand and arm. The hand 
should be inserted with the thumb and fingers drawn together like a 
cone. Whether standing or lyiug the mare should be turned with head 
down hill and hind parts raised as much as possible. The contents of 
the abdomen gravitating forward leave much more room for manipula- 
tion. Whatever part of the foal is presented (head, foot) should be se- 
cured with a cord and running noose before it is pushed back to search 
for the other missing parts. Even if a missing part is reached no at- 
tempt should be made to bring it -ip during a labor pain. Pinching 
the back will sometimes check the ] .ins and allow the operator to se- 
cure and bring up the missing member. In intractable cases a large 
dose of chloral hydrate ( 1 ounce in a quart of water) or the inhalation 
of chloroform and air (equal proportions) to insensibility may secure a 
respite, during which the missing members may bo replaced. If the 
icaters have been discharged and the mucus dried up, the genital pas- 
sages and body of the foetus should be lubricated with lard or oil before 
any attempt at extraction is made. When the missing member has 
been brought up into position, and presentation has been rendered nat- 



158 

ural, traction on the fee tus must be made only during a labor pain. If 
a mare is inclined to kick, it may be necessary to apply hobbles to pro- 
tect the operator. 

PREMATURE LABOR PAINS. 

These may be brought on by any violent exertion, use under the 
saddle, or in heavy draught, or in rapid paces, or in travel by rail or 
sea, blows, kicks, crushing by other animals in a doorway or gate. 
Excessive action of purgative or diuretic agents, or of agents that ir- 
ritate the bowels or kidneys, like arsenic, Paris green, all caustic salts 
and acids, and acrid and narcotico- acrid vegetables, is equally in- 
jurious. Finally, the ingestion of agents that stimulate the action of 
the gravid womb (ergot of rye or of other grasses, smut, various fungi of 
fodders, rue, savin, cotton-root, etc.) may bring on labor pains pre- 
maturely. 

Besides the knowledge that parturition is not yet due, there will be 
less enlargement, redness and swelliug of the vulva, less mucous dis- 
charge, less filling of the udder, and less appearances of wax and proba- 
bly none of milk from the ends of the teats. The oiled hand introduced 
into the vulva will not enter with the ease usual at full term, and the 
neck of the womb will be felt not only closed, but with its projecting 
papillae, through which it is perforated, not yet flattened down and 
effaced, as at full term. The symptoms are indeed those of threatened 
abortion, but at such an advanced stage of gestation as is compatible 
with the survival of the offspring. 

The treatment consists in the separation of the mare from all other 
animals in a quiet, dark, secluded place, and the free use of anti-spas- 
modics and anodynes. Opium in dram doses every two hours, or 
laudanum in ounce doses at similar intervals, will often suffice. When 
the more urgent symptoms have subsided these doses may be repeated 
thrice a day till all excitement passes off or until the passages have 
become relaxed and prepared for parturition. Viburnum prunifolium, 
in ounce doses, may be added if necessary. Should parturition become 
inevitable, it may be favored and any necessary assistance furnished. 

DIFFICULT PARTURITION FROM NARROW PELVIS. 

A disproportion between the foetus got by a large stallion and the 
pelvis of a small dam is a serious obstacle to parturition, sometimes 
seen in the mare. This is not the rule, however, as the foal up to 
birth usually accommodates itself to the size of the dam, as illustrated 
in the successful crossing of Percheron stallions on mustang mares. 
If the disproportion is too great the only resort is embryotomy. 

FRACTURED HIP-BONES. 

More commonly the obstruction comes from distortion and narrow- 
ing of the pelvis as the rtsult of fractures. (Plates XIV, Fig. 2.) 
Fractures at any point of the lateral wall or floor of the pelvis are re- 



159 

paired with the formation of an extensive bony deposit bulging into the 
passage of the pelvis. The displacement of the ends of the broken bone 
is another cause of constriction and between the two conditions the 
passage of the foetus may be rendered impossible without embryotomy. 
Fracture of the sacrum (the continuation of the back-bone forming the 
croup) leads to the depression of the posterior part of that bone in the 
roof of the pelvis and the narrowing of the passage from above down- 
ward by a bony ridge presenting its sharp edge forward. 

In all cases in which there has been injury to the bones of the pelvis 
the obvious precaution is to withhold the mare from breeding and to 
use her for work only. 

If a mare with a pelvis thus narrowed has got in foal inadvertently, 
abortion may be induced in the early months of gestation by slowly 
introducing the oiled finger through the neck of the womb and follow- 
ing this by the other fingers until the whole hand has been introduced. 
Then the water-bags may be broken, and with the escape of the liquid 
the womb will contract on the solid foetus and labor pains will ensue. 
The foetus being small it will pass easily. 

TUMORS IN THE VAGINA AND PELVIS. 

Tumors of various kinds may form in the vagina or elsewhere within 
the pelvis, and when large enough will obstruct or prevent the passage 
of the foetus. Gray mares, which are so subject to black pigment tumors 
(melanosis) on the tail, anus, and vulva, are the most likely to suffer 
from this. Still more rarely the wall of the vagina becomes relaxed, 
and being pressed by a mass of intestines will protrude through the lips 
of the vulva as a hernial sac, containing a part of the bowels. Where 
a tumor is small it may only retard and not absolutely prevent parturi- 
tion. A hernial protrusion of the wall of the vagina may be pressed 
back and emptied so that the body of the foetus engaging in the passage 
may find no further obstacle. When a tumor is too large to allow de- 
livery the only resort is to remove'it.'but before proceeding it must be 
clearly made out that the obstruction is a mass of diseased tissue, and 
not a sac containing intestines. If the tumor hangs by a neck it can 
usually be most safely removed by the ecraseur, the chain being passed 
around the pedicel and gradually tightened until that is torn through. 

HERNIA OF THE WOMB. 

The rupture of the musculo fibrous floor of the belly and the escape 
of the gravid womb into a sac formed by the peritoneum and skin hang- 
ing towards the ground, is described by all veterinary obstetricians, 
yet it is very rarely seen in the mare. The form of the foetus can be 
felt through the walls of the sac, so that it is easy to recognize the condi- 
tion. Its cause is usually external violence, though it may start from 
an umbilical hernia. When the period of parturition arrives, the first 
effort should be to return the foetus within the proper abdominal cavity, 



160 

and this can sometimes be accomplished with the aid of a stout blanket 
gradually tightened around the belly. This failing, the mare may be 
placed on her side or back and gravitation brought to the aid of manip- 
ulation in securing the return. Even after the hernia has been reduced 
the relaxed state of the womb and abdominal walls may serve to hinder 
parturition, in which case the oiled hand must be introduced tbrough 
the vagina, the foetus brought into position, and traction coincident 
with the labor pains employed to secure delivery. 

TWISTING OF THE NECK OF THE WOMB. 

This condition is very uncommon in the mare, though occasionally 
seen in the cow, owing to the greater laxity of the broad ligaments of 
the womb in that animal. It consists in a revolution of the womb on 
its own axis, so that its right or left side will be turned upward (quarter 
revolution), or the lower surface may be turned upward and the upper 
surface downward (half revolution). The effect is to throw the narrow 
neck of the womb into a series of spiral folds, turning in the direction 
in which the womb has revolved, closing the neck and rendering dis- 
tention and dilatation impossible. 

The period and pains of parturition arrive, but in spite of continued 
efforts no progress is made, neither water-bags nor liquids appearing. 
The oiled hand introduced into the closed neck of the womb will readily 
detect the spiral direction of the folds on its inner surface. 

The method of relief which I have successfully adopted in the cow may 
be equally happy in the mare. The dam is placed (with her head up- 
hill) on her right side if the upper folds of the spiral turn toward the 
right, and on her left side if they turn toward the left; and the oiled 
hand is introduced through the neck of the womb and a limb or other 
part of the body of the fcetus is seized and pressed against the wall of 
the womb, while two or three assistants turn the animal over her back 
toward the other side. The object is to keep rtie womb stationary while 
the animal is rolling. If success attends the effort, the constriction 
around the arm is suddenly relaxed, the spiral folds are effaced, and 
the water-bags and fcetus press forward into the passage. If the first 
attempt does not succeed it may be repeated again and again until suc- 
cess crowns the effort. Among my occasional causes of failure have 
been the prior death and decomposition of the fcetus, with the extrica- 
tion of gas and overdisteution of the womb, and the supervention of 
inflammation and inflammatory exudation around the neck of the womb, 
which hinders untwisting. The first of these conditions occurs early in 
the horse from the detachment of the foetal membranes from the wall 
of the womb, and as the mare is more subject to fatal peritonitis than 
the cow, it may be concluded that both these sources of failure are 
more probable in the equine subject. 

When the case is intractable, though the hand may be easily in- 
troduced, the instrument shown in Plate VIII, Fig. 7, may be used. 



161 

Each hole at the small end of the instrument has passed through it a 
stout cord with a running- noose, to be passed around two feet or other 
portion of the fetus which it may be possible to reach. The cords are 
then drawn tight and fixed around the handle of the instrument, then 
by using the cross-handle as a lever the foetus and womb may be rotated 
in a direction opposite to that causing the obstruction. During this 
process the hand must be introduced to feel when the twist has been 
undone. This method may be supplemented, if necessary, by rolling 
the mare as described above. 

EFFUSION OF BLOOD IN THE VAGINAL WALLS. 

This is common as a result of difficult parturition, but it may occur 
from local injury before that act, and may seriously interfere with it. 
This condition is easily recognized by the soft, doughy swelling so char- 
acteristic of blood clots, and by the dark red color of the mucous mem- 
brane. I have laid open such swellings with the knife as late as ten 
days before parturition, evacuated the clots, and dressed the wound 
daily with an astringent lotion (sulphate of zince 1 dram, carbolic acid 
1 dram, water 1 quart). A similar resort might be had, if necessary, 
during parturition. 

CALCULUS (STONE) AND TUMOR IN THE BLADDER. 

The pressure upon the bladder containing a stone or a tumor may 
prove so painful that the mare will voluntarily suppress the labor pains. 
Examination of the bladder with the fiuger introduced through the 
urethra will detect the offending agent. A stone should be extracted 
with forceps (see "Lithotomy"). The large papillary tumors which I 
have met with in the mare's bladder have been invariably delicate in 
texture and could be removed piecemeal by forceps. Fortunately, 
mares affected in this way rarely breed. 

IMPACTION OF THE RECTUM WITH F^CES. 

In some animals, with more or less paralysis or weakness of the tail 
and rectum, the rectum may become so impacted with solid faeces that 
the mare is unable to discharge them, and the accumulation both by 
reason of the mechanical obstruction and the pain caused by pressure 
upon it will impel the animal to cut short all labor pains. The rounded 
swelling surrounding the anus will at once suggest the condition, when 
the obstruction may be removed by the well-oiled or soaped haud. 

SPASM OF THE NECK OF THE WOMB. 

This occurs in the mare of specially excitable temperament, or under 
particular causes of irritation, local or general. Labor pains, though 
continuing for some time, produce no dilatation of the neck of the 
womb, which will be found firmly closed so as to admit but one or two 
lingers, and this, although the projection at the mouth of the womb 
11035 11 



162 

may Lave been entirely effaced, so that ;i simple round opening is left 
with rigid margins. 

The simplest treatment consists in smearing this part with solid ex- 
tract of belladonna, and after an interval inserting the hand with fin- 
gers and thumb drawn into the form of a cone, rupturing the mem- 
branes and bringing the foetus into position for extraction, as advised 
under "Prolonged Pretention of the Fcetus." Another mode is to in- 
sert through the neck of the womb an ovoid caoutchouc bag, empty, 
and furnished with an elastic tube 12 feet long. Carry the free end 
end of this tube upward to a height of 8, 10, or 12 feet, insert a filler 
into it, and proceed to distend the bag with tepid or warm water. 

FIBROUS BANDS CONSTRICTING OR CROSSING THE NECK OF THE WOMB. 

These occurring as the result of disease have been several times ob- 
served in the mare. They may exist in the cavity of the abdomen and 
compress and obstruct the neck of the womb, or they may extend from 
side to side of the vagina across and just behind the neck of the womb. 
In the latter position they may be felt and quickly remedied by cut- 
ting them across. In the abdomen they can only be reached by incis- 
ion, and two alternatives are presented : (1) To'perform embryotomy 
and extract the fcetus piecemeal 5 and (2) to make an incision into 
the abdomen and extract by the Oajsariau operation, or simply to cut 
the constricting band and attempt delivery by the usual channel. 

FIBROUS CONSTRICTION OF VAGINA OR VULVA. 

This is probably always the result of direct mechanical injury and 
the formation of rigid cicatrices which fail to dilate with the remainder 
of the passages at the approach of parturition. The presentation of 
the fcetus in the natural way and the occurrence of successive and 
active labor pains without any favorable result will direct attention 
to the rigid and unyielding cicatrices which may be incised at one, 
two, or more points to a depth of half an inch or more, after which the 
natural expulsive efforts will usually prove effective. The resulting 
wouuds may be washed frequently with a solution of one part of car- 
bolic acid to 50 parts of water, or of 1 part of mercuric chloride to 
to 500 parts water. 

FCETUS ADHERENT TO THE WALLS OF THE WOMB. 

In inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the cavity of the 
womb and implicating the fcetal membranes, the resulting embryonic 
tissue sometimes establishes a medium of direct continuity between 
the womb and fcetal membranes; the blood vessels of the one communi- 
cate freely with those of the other and the fibers of the one are pro- 
longed into the other. This causes retention of the membranes after 
birth, and a special risk of bleeding from the womb, and of sen- 
tic poisoning. In exceptional cases the adhesion is more extensive 



163 

and binds a portion of the bod 3' of the foul firmly to the womb. In 
such cases it has repeatedly beeu found impossible to extract the foal 
until such adhesions were broken down. If they can be reached with 
the hand and recognized they may be torn through with the ringers or 
with a blunt hook, after which delivery may be attempted with hope of 
success. 

EXCESSIVE SIZE OP THE FCETUS. 

It would seem that a small mare may usually be safely bred to a 
large stallion, yet this is not always the case, and when the small size is 
an individual rather than a racial characteristic or the result of extreme 
youth, the rule can not be expected to hold. There is always great 
danger in breeding the young, small, and undeveloped female, and the 
dwarfed representative of a larger breed, as the offspring tend to par- 
take of the large race characteristics and to show them even prior to 
birth. When impregnation has occurred in the very young or in the 
dwarfed female, there are two alternatives — to induce abortion, or to 
wait until there are attempts at parturition and to extract by embry- 
otom3 r if impracticable otherwise. 

•CONSTRICTION OP A MEMBER BY THE NAVEL STRING. 

In man and animals alike the winding of the umbilical cord round a 
member of the foetus sometimes leads to the amputation of the latter. 
It is also known to get wound around the neck or a limb at birth, but 
in the mare this does not seriously impede parturition, as the loosely 
attached membranes are easily separated from the womb and no stran- 
gulation or retarding occurs. The foal may, however, die from the 
cessation of the placental circulation unless it is speedily delivered. 

WATER IN THE HEAD (HYDROCEPHALUS) OP THE FOAL. 

This consists in the excessive accumulation of liquid in the ventricles 
of the brain so that the cranial cavity is enlarged and constitutes a 
great projectiug rounded mass occupying the space from the eyes 
upward. (See Plate XIV, Fig. 3.) With an anterior presentation (fore 
feet and nose) this presents an insuperable obstacle to progress, as the 
diseased cranium is too large to enter the pelvis at the same time with 
the fore-arms. With a posterior presentation (hind feet) all goes well 
until the body and shoulders have passed out, when progress is sud- 
denly arrested by the great bulk of the head. In the first case, the 
oiled hand introduced along the face detects the enormous size of the 
head, which may be diminished b3 T puncturing it with a knife or trochar 
and cannula in the median line, evacuating the water and pressing in 
the thin bony walls. With a posterior presentation, the same course 
must be followed; the hand passed along the neck will detect the cranial 
swelling, which may be punctured with a knife or trochar. Oftentimes 
with au anterior piesentation the great size of the head leads to its 



164 

displacement backward and thus the fore limbs alone engage in the 
passages. Here the first object is to seek and bring up the missing 
head, and then puncture it as above suggested. 

DROPSY OF THE ABDOMEN IN THE FOAL — ASCITES. 

The accumulation of liquid in the abdominal cavity of the fetus is 
less frequent, but -when present it may arrest parturition as completely 
as will hydrocephalus. With an anterior presentation the foal may 
pass as far as the shoulders, but behind this all efforts fail to secure a 
further advance. With a posterior presentation the hind legs as far as 
the thighs may be expelled, but at this point all progress ceases. In 
either case the oiled hand passed inward by the side of the foal will de- 
tect the enormous distention of the abdomen and its soft, fluctuating 
contents. The only course is to puncture the cavity aud evacuate the 
liquid. With the anterior presentation this may be done with a long 
trochar and cannula, introduced through the chest and diaphragm ; or 
with a knife an incision may be made between the first two ribs, and 
the lungs and heart cut or torn out, when the diaphragm will be felt 
projecting strongly forward and may be easily punctured. Should 
there not be room to introduce the hand through the chest, the oiled 
hand may be passed along beneath the breast bone and the abdomen 
punctured. With a posterior presentation the abdomen must be punct- 
ured in the same way, the hand, armed with a knife protected in its 
palm, being passed along the side of the flank or between the hind 
limbs. It should be added that moderate dropsy of the abdomen is not 
incompatible with natural delivery, the liquid being at first crowded 
back into the portion of the belly still engaged in the womb, aud passing 
slowly from that into the advanced portion as soon as that has cleared 
the narrow passage of the pelvis, and passed out where it can expand. 

GENERAL DROPSY OF THE FCETUS. 

In this case the tissues generally are distended with liquid, and the 
skin is found at all points tense and rounded, and pitting on pressure 
with the fingers. In some such cases delivery may be effected alter the 
skin has been punctured at narrow intervals to allow the escape of the 
fluid and then liberally smeared with fresh lard. More commonly, 
however, it can not be reached at all points to be so punctured, nor 
sufficiently reduced to be extracted whole, and resort must be bad to 
embryotomy. 

SWELLING OF THE FCETUS WITH GAS — EMPHYSEMA. 

This has been described as occurring in a living foetus, but I have 
only met with it in the dead and decomposing foal, after futile efforts 
have been made for several days to effect delivery. These cases are 
very difficult ones, as the foal is inflated to such an extent that it is 
impossible to advance it into the passages, and the skin of the foetus 



165 

and the walls of the womb aud vagina have become so dry that it is 
impracticable to cause the one to glide on the other. The hair comes 
off any part that may be seized, and the case is rendered the more of- 
fensive and dangerous by the very fetid liquids and gases. The only 
resort is embryotomy, by which I have succeeded in saving a valuable 
mare that had carried a colt in this conditiou for four days. 

CONTRACTIONS OF MUSCLES. 

The foal is not always developed symmetrically, but certain groups 
of muscles are liable to remain short or to shorten because of persistent 
spasmodic contraction, so that even the bones become distorted and 
twisted. This is most common in the neck. The bones of this part 
and even of the face are drawn to one side and shortened, the head 
being held firmly to the flank and the jaws being twisted to the right 
or left. In other cases the flexor muscles of the fore limbs are con- 
tracted so that these members are strongly bent at the knee. In neither 
of these cases can the distorted part be extended aud straightened, so 
that body or limbs must necessarily present double, and natural deliv- 
ery is rendered impossible. The bent neck may sometimes be straight- 
ened after the muscles have been cut on the side to which it is turned, 
and the bent limbs after the tendons on the back of the shank bone have 
been cut across. Failing to accomplish this, the next resort is to em- 
bryotomy. 

TUMORS OF THE FOETUS — INCLOSED OVUM. 

Tumors or diseased growths may form on any part of the foal, in- 
ternal or external, and by their size impede or hinder parturition. In 
some cases what appears as a tumor is an imprisoned and undeveloped 
ovum, which has grafted itself on the foetus. These are usually saccu- 
lated aud may contain skin, hair, muscle, bone, and other natural tissues. 
The only course to be pursued in such cases is to excise the tumor, or, 
if this is not feasible, to perform embryotomy. 

MONSTROSITIES. 

Monstrosity in the foal is an occasional cause of difficult parturition, 
especially such monsters as show excessive development of some part 
of the body, a displacement or distortion of parts, or a redundancy of 
parts, as iu double monsters. Monsters may be divided into — 

(1) Monsters with absence of parts — absence of head, limb, or other 
organ. 

(2) Monsters with some part abnormally small — dwarfed head, limb, 
trunk, etc. 

(3) Monsters through unnatural division of parts — cleft head, trunk, 
limbs, etc. 

(4) Monsters through absence of natural divisions — absence of mouth, 
nose, eyes, anus, confluent digits, etc. 



166 

(5) Monsters through fusion of parts — one central eye, one nasal 
opening, etc. 

(6) Monsters through abnormal position or form of parts — curved 
spine, face, limb, etc. 

(7) Monsters through excess of formation — enormous head, super 
numerary digits, etc. 

(8) Monsters through imperfect differentiation of sexual organs — 
hermaphrodites. 

(9) Double monsters— double-headed, double-bodied, extra limbs, 
etc. 

The causes of monstrosities appear to be very varied. Some mon- 
strosities, like extra digits, absence of horns or tails, etc., run in fami- 
lies and are produced almost as certainly as color or form. Others are 
associated with too close breeding, the powers of symmetrical develop- 
ment being interfered with, just as in other cases a sexual incompati- 
bility is developed, near relatives failing to breed with each other. 
Mere arrest of development of a part may arise from accidental disease 
of the embryo; hence vital organs are left out, or portions of organs, like 
the dividing walls of the heart, are omitted. Sometimes an older foetus 
is inclosed in the body of another, each having started independently 
from a separate ovum, but the one having become embedded in the 
semi fluid mass of the other and having developed there simultaneously 
with it, but not so largely nor perfectly. In many cases of redundance 
of parts, the extra part or member has manifestly developed from the 
same ovum and nutrient center with the normal member to which it 
remains adherent, just as a new tail will grow out in a newt when the 
the former has been cut off. In the early embryo, with its great powers 
of development, this factor can operate to far greater purpose than in 
the adult animal. Its influence is seen in the fact pointed out by St. 
Hilaire that such redundant parts are nearly always connected with the 
corresponding portions in the normal fcetus. Thus superfluous legs or 
digi's are attached to the normal ones, double heads or tails are con- 
nected to a common neck or rump, and double bodies are attached to 
each other by corresponding points, navel to navel, breast to breast, 
back to back. All this suggests the development of extra parts from 
the same primary layer of the impregnated and developing ovum. The 
effect of disturbing conditions in giving such wrong directions to the 
developmental forces is well shown in the experiments of St. Hilaire 
and Valentine in varnishing, shaking, and otherwise breaking up the 
natural connections in eggs, and thereby determining the formation of 
monstrosities at will. So, in the mammal, blows and other injuries 
that detach the foetal membranes from the walls of the womb or that 
modify their circulation by inducing inflammation are at times followed 
by the development of a monster. The excitement, mental and phys- 
ical, attendant on fright occasionally acts in a similar way, acting prob- 
ably through the same channels. 



167 

The monstrous forms likely to interfere with parturition are such as 
from contracted or twisted limbs or spine, must be presented double; 
where supernumerary limbs, head, or body must approach the passages 
with the natural ones; where a head or other member has attained to 
an unnatural size ; where the body of one foetus has become inclosed 
in or attached to another, etc. 

Extraction is sometimes possible by straightening the members and 
securing such a presentation as will reduce the presenting mass to its 
smallest and most wedge-like dimensions. To effect this it may be 
needful to cut the flexor tendons of bent limbs or the muscles on the 
side of a twisted neck or body; and one or more of the manipulations 
necessary to secure and bring up a missing member may be required. 
In most cases of monstrosity by excess, however, it is needful to remove 
the superfluous parts, in which case the general principles employed 
for embryotomy must be followed. The Csesarian section, by which the 
foetus is extracted through an incision in the walls of the abdomen and 
womb, is inadmissible, as it practically entails the sacrifice of the mare, 
which should never be done for the sake of a monster. See " Em- 
bryotomy." 

ENTRANCE OF TWINS INTO THE PASSAGE AT ONCE. 

Twins are rare in the mare, and still more rare is the impaction of 
both at once into the pelvis. The condition would be easily recognized 
by the fact that two fore limbs and two hind would occupy the passage 
at once, the front of the hoofs of the fore feet being turned upward and 
those of the hind feet downward. If both belonged to one foal they 
would be turned in the same direction. Once recognized, the condi- 
tion is easily remedied by passing a rope with a running noose round 
each foot of the foal that is farthest advanced or that promises to be 
most easily extracted, and to push the members of the other foetus 
back into the depth of the womb. As soon as the one foetus is fully 
engaged in the passage it will hold its place and its delivery will pro- 
ceed in the natural way. 

TABLE OF WRONG PRESENTATIONS. 

f Incompletely extended. Flexor tendons shortened, 

,-r, ,. . ] Crossed over the neck, 

f Fore limbs + Bent back ftt the knee 

£ | (. Bent hack from the shoulder. 

u § f Bent downward on the neck. 

.23 L , J Head and neck turned back beneath the breast. 

%£{ nem 1 Turned to one side. 

[ Turned upward and backward on the back. 

Hind limbs Hind feet engaged in the pelvis. 

Transverse Back of foal to side of pelvis. 

Inverted Back of foal to floor of pelvis. 

■A A f n . , ,. , ( Benton itself at the hock. 

S-g 4 g I Hind iimbs. j Bent at theMp- 

g ft a .g | Transverse Back of foal to side of pelvis. 

Cl, o * *" [inverted Back of foal to floor of pelvis. 

T, „ , ,. „, , ( With back and loins presented. 

Ti ansverse presentation of body . J With brea8t and beU ^ presented . 



168 

FORE-LIMBS INCOMPLETELY EXTENDED. 

In cases of this kind, not only are the back tendons behind the knee 
and shank-bone unduly short, but the sinew extending from the 
front of the shoulder-blade over the front of the elbow and down 
to the head of the shank-bone is also shortened. The result is that 
the fore-limb is bent at the knee and the elbow is also rigidly bent. 
The condition obstructs parturition b,y the feet becoming pressed against 
the floor of the pelvis or by the elbow pressing on its anterior brim. 
Belief is to be obtained by forcible extension. A rope with a running 
noose is passed around each fetlock and a repeller (see Plate VIII), 
planted in the breast is pressed in a direction upward and backward 
while active traction is made on the ropes. If the feet are not thereby 
raised from the floor of the pelvis the palm of the hand may be placed 
beneath them to protect the mucous membrane until they have ad- 
vanced sufficiently to obviate this danger. In the absence of a repel- 
ler, a smooth rounded fork-handle may be employed. If the shortening 
is too great to allow of the exteusion of the limbs in this way, the tense 
tendons may be cut across behind the shank bone and in front of the 
elbow, and the limb will be easily straightened out. This is most easily 
done with an embryotomy knife furnished with a ring for the middle 
finger, so that the blade may be protected in the palm of the hand. 
(See Plate XIV, Fig. 4.) 

ONE FORE-LIMB CROSSED OVER THE BACK OF THE NECK. 

With the long fore-limbs of the foal this readily occurs and the re- 
sulting increase in thickness, both at the head and shoulder, offers a 
serious obstacle to progress. (See Plate X, Fig. 2.) The hand intro- 
duced into the passage detects the head and one forefoot, and further 
back on the same side of the head the second foot, from which the limb 
may be traced obliquely across the back of the neck. 

If parturition continues to make progress the displaced foot may 
bruise and lacerate the vagina. By seizing the limb above the fetlock 
it may be easily pushed over the head to the proper side, when par- 
turition will proceed normally. 

FORE-LIMB BENT AT THE KNEE. 

The nose and one fore-foot present, and on examination the knee of 
the missing fore-limb is found farther back. (Plate X, Fig. 1.) First 
place a noose each on the presenting pastern and lower jaw, and push 
back the body of the foetus with a repeller, while the operator seizing 
the shank of the bent limb extends it so as to press back the knee 
and bring forward the fetlock and foot. As progress is made little 
by little the hand is slid down from the region of the knee to the fet- 
lock, and finally that is secured and brought up into the passage, 
when parturition will proceed without hindrance. If both fore-limbs 



169 

are bent back the head must be noosed and the limbs brought up as 
above, one after the other. It is usually best to employ the left hand 
for the right fore-limb and the right hand for the left fore-limb. 

FORE-LIMB TURNED BACK FROM THE SHOULDER. 

In this case, on exploration by the side of the head and presenting 
limb, the shoulder only can be reached at first. (Plate X, Fig. 4.) By 
noosing the head and presenting fore-limb these may be drawn for- 
ward into the pelvis, and the oiled hand being carried along the shoul- 
der in the direction of the missing limb is enabled to reach and seize 
the fore arm just below the elbow. The body is now pushed back by 
the assistants pressing on the head and presenting limb or on a repel- 
ler planted in the breast until the knee can be brought up into the pel- 
vis, after which the procedure is the same as described in the last par- 
agraph. 

HEAD BENT DOWN BETWEEN THE FORE-LIMBS. 

This may be so that the poll or nape of the neck with the ears can be 
felt far back between the fore-limbs, or so that only the upper border of 
the neck can be reached, head and neck being bent back beneath the 
body. With the head only bent on the neck, noose the two presenting 
limbs, then introduce the hand between them until the nose can be 
seized in the palm of the hand. Next have the assistants push back 
the presenting limbs, while the nose is strongly lifted upward over the 
brim of the pelvis. This accomplished it assumes the natural position 
and parturition is easy. 

When both head and neck are bent downward it may be impossible 
to reach the nose. If, however, the labor has only commenced, the limbs 
may be drawn upon until the operator can reach the ear, by dragging 
on which the head may be so far advanced that the fingers may reach 
the orbit ; traction upon this while the limbs are being pushed back may 
bring the head up so that it bends on the neck only, and the further 
procedure will be as described in the last paragraph. 

If the labor has been long in progress and the foetus is jammed into 
the pelvis, the womb emptied of the waters and firmly contracted on its 
solid contents, the case is incomparably more difficult. The mare may 
be chloroformed and turned on her back with hind parts elevated, and 
the womb may be injected with sweet-oil. Then, if the ear can be 
reached, the correction of the mal-presentation may be attempted as 
above described. Should this fail one or more sharp hooks may be in- 
serted in the neck as near the head as can be reached, and ropes at- 
tached to these may be dragged on, while the body of the foal is pushed 
back by the fore-limbs or by a repeller. Such repulsion should be made 
in a direction obliquely upward toward the loins of the mother so as to 
rotate the foetus in such a way as to bring the head up. As this is ac- 
complished a hold should be secured nearer and nearer to the nose, with 
hand or hook, until the head can be straightened out on the neck. 



170 

All means failing, it becomes necessary to remove the fore-limbs 
(embryotomy) so as to make more space fur bringing up the head. If, 
even then, this can not be accomplished, it may be possible to push the 
body backward and upward with the repeller until the hinddimbs are 
brought to the passage, when they may be noosed and delivery effected 
with the posterior presentation. 

HEAD TURNED BACK ON THE SHOULDER. 

In this case, the fore-feet present, and the oiled hand passed along 
the forearms in search of the missing head finds the side of the neck 
turned to one side, the head being perhaps entirely out of reach. 
(Plate XIII, Fig. 1.) To bring forward the head it may be desirable 
to lay the mare on the opposite side to that to which the head is 
turned, and even to give chloroform or ether. Then the feet being 
noosed, the body of the foetus is pushed by the hand or repeller for- 
ward and to the side opposite to that occupied by the head until the 
head comes within reach, near the entrance of the pelvis. If such dis- 
placement of the fetus is difficult, it may be facilitated by a free use 
of oil or lard. When the nose can be seized it can be brought into the 
passage as when the head is turned down. If it can not be reached 
the orbit may be availed of to draw the head forward until the nose can 
be seized or the lower jaw noosed. In very difficult cases a rope may 
be passed around the neck by the hand, or with the aid of a curved car- 
rier (Plate VIII), and traction may be made upon this while the body 
is being rotated to the other side. In the same way, in bad cases, 
a hook may be fixed in the orbit or even between the bones of the 
lower jaw to assist in bringing the head up into position. Should all 
fail, the amputation of the fore-limbs may be resorted to as advised 
under the last heading. 

HEAD TURNED UPWARD ON THE BACK. 

This differs from the last mal-presentation only in the direction of 
the head, which has to be sought above rather than at one side, and is 
to be secured and brought forward in a similar manner. (Plate XIII, 
Fig. 2.) If a rope can be passed around the neck it will prove most 
effectual, as it naturally slides nearer to the head as the neck is 
straightened, and ends by bringing the head within easy reach. 

HIND FEET ENGAGED IN THE PELVIS. 

In this case fore limbs and head present naturally, but the hind 
limbs bent forward from the hip and the loins arched allow the hind 
feet also to enter the passages, and the farther labor advances the 
more firmly does the body of the foal become wedged into the pelvis. 
(Plate XII, Fig. 2.) The condition is to be recognized by introducing 
the oiled hand along the belly of the fetus, when the hind feet will be 



171 

felt advancing. An attempt should at once be made to push tnem 
back, one after the other, over the brim of the pelvis. Failing in this, 
the mare may be turned on her back, head down hill, and the attempt 
renewed. If it is possible to introduce a straight rope carrier, a noose 
passed through this may be put on the fetlock and the repulsion thereby 
made more effective. In case of continued failure the anterior present- 
ing part of the body may be skinned and cut off as far back toward the 
pelvis as possible (see "Embryotomy"); then nooses are placed on the 
hind fetlocks and traction is made upon these while the quarters are 
pushed back into the womb. Then the remaining portion is brought 
away by the posterior presentation. 

ANTERIOR PRESENTATION WITH BACK TURNED TO ONE SIDE. 

The greatest diameter of the axis of the foal, like that of the pelvic 
passages, is from above downward, and when the foetus enters the 
pelvis with this greatest diameter engaged transversely or iu the nar- 
row diameter of the pelvis, parturition is rendered difficult or impossi- 
ble. In such a case the pasterns and head may be noosed, and the 
passages and engaged portion of the foal freely lubricated with lard, 
the limbs may be crossed over each other and the head, and a move- 
ment of rotation effected in the foetus until its face and back are turned 
up toward the croup of the mother ; then parturition becomes natural. 

BACK OP THE POAL TURNED TO THE FLOOR OP THE PELVIS. 

In a roomy mare this is not an insuperable obstacle to parturition, 
yet it may seriously impede it, by reason of the curvature of the body 
of the foal being opposite to that of the passages, and the head aud 
withers being liable to arrest against the border of the pelvis. Lubri- 
cation of the passage with lard and traction of the limbs and head 
will usually suffice with or without the turning of the mare on her back. 
In obstinate cases two other resorts are open: (1) to turn the foal, 
pushing back the fore-parts and bringing up the hind so as to make a 
a posterior presentation, and (2) the amputation of the fore-limbs, 
after which extraction will usually be easy. 

HIND PRESENTATION WITH LEG BENT AT nOCK. 

In this form the quarters of the foal with the hind-legs bent up be- 
neath them present, but can not advance through the pelvis by reason 
of their bulk. (Plate X, Fig. 3.) The oiled hand introduced can recog- 
nize the outline of the buttocks, with the tail and anus in the center 
and the sharp points of the hocks beneath. First pass a rope around 
each limb at the hock, then with hand or repeller, push the buttocks 
backward and upwards, until the feet can be brought up into the pas- 
sages. The great length of the shank and pastern in the foal is a serious 
obstacle to this, and in all cases the foot should be protected in the 



172 

palm of the hand while being brought up over the brim of the pelvis. 
Otherwise the womb may be torn. When the pains are too violent and 
constant to allow effective manipulation, some respite may be obtained 
by the use of chloroform or morphia, and by turning the mare on her 
back, but too often the operator fails and the foal must be sacrificed. 
Two courses.are still open: first, to cut through the cords behind and 
above the hock and extend the upper part of the limb, leaving the 
hock bent, and extract in this way, and, second, to amputate the hind 
limbs at the hip joint and remove them separately, after which the body 
may be extracted. 

HIND PRESENTATION WITH LEGS BENT FORWARD FROM THE HIP. 

This is merely an aggravated form of the presentation last de- 
scribed. (Plate XII, Fig. 1). If the mare is roomy a rope may be 
passed around each thigh and the body pushed upward and forward, so 
as to bring the hocks and heels upward. If this can be accomplished, 
nooses are placed on the limb farther and farther down until the feltlock 
is reached and brought into position. If failure is met with, then am- 
putation at the hips is the dernier ressort. 

HIND PRESENTATIONS WITH THE BACK TURNED SIDEWAYS OR 

DOWNWARD. 

These are the counterparts of similar anterior presentations and are 
to be managed in the same way. 

PRESENTATION OF THE BACK. 

This is rare, yet not unknown, the foal being bent upon itself with 
the back, recognizable by its sharp row of spines, presented at the en- 
trance of the pelvis, and the head and all four feet turned back into the 
womb. (Plate XI, Fig. 1.) The body of the foetus may be extended 
across the opening transversely so that the head corresponds to one side 
(right or left), or it may be vertical with the head above or below. 

In any such position the object should be to push the body of the 
foetus forward and upward or to one side, as may best promise to bring 
up the fore or hind extremities, and bring the latter into the passage so 
as to constitute a normal anterior or posterior presentation. This turn- 
ing of the fcetns may be favored by a given position of the mother, by 
the free use of oil or lard on the surface of the foetus, and by the use of 
a propeller. 

PRESENTATION OF BREAST AND ABDOMEN. 

This is the reverse of the back presentation, the foal being extended 
across in front of the pelvic opening, but with the belly turned toward 
the passages and with all four feet engaged in the passage. (Plate XI, 
Fig. 2.) The most promising course is to secure the hind feet with 



173 

nooses and then push the forefeet forward into the womb. As soon as 
the forefeet are pushed forward clear of the brim of the pelvis, traction 
is made on the hind feet so as to bring- the thighs into the passage and 
prevent the re-entrance of the fore-limbs. If it prove difficult to push 
back the fore-limbs a noose may be passed around the fetlock of each 
and the cord drawn through the eye of a rope carrier, by means of 
which the members may be easily pushed back. 

EMBRYOTOMY. 

This consists in the dissection of the foetus so as to reduce its bulk 
and allow of its exit through the pelvis. The indications for its adop- 
tion have been furnished in the foregoing pages. The operation will 
vary in different cases according to the necessity for the removal of one 
or more parts in order to secure the requisite reduction in size. Thus 
it may be needful to remove head and neck, one fore-limb or both, one 
hind limb or both, to remove different parts of the truuk, or to remove 
superfluous (monstrous) parts. Some of the simplest operations of em- 
bryotomy (incision of the head in hydrocephalus, incision of the belly 
in dropsy) have already been described. It remains to notice the more 
difficult procedures which can be best undertaken by the skilled 
anatomist. 

Amputation of the fore limbs. — This may usually be begun on the fet- 
lock of the limb projecting from the vulva. An embryotomy knife is 
desirable. This knife consists of a blade with a sharp, slightly hooked 
point, and one or two rings in the back of the blade large enough to 
fit on the middle finger, while the blade is protected in the palm of the 
hand. (See Plate XIV, Fig. 4.) Another form has the blade inserted 
in a mortise in the handle from which it is pushed out by a movable 
button when wanted. First place a noose around the fetlock of the 
limb to be amputated, cut the skin circularly entirely around the fet- 
lock, then make an incision on the inner side of the limb from the fetlock 
up to the breast bone. Next dissect the skin from the limb, from the fet- 
lock up to the breast bone on the inner side, and as far up on the shoulder 
blade as possible on the outer side. Finally, cut through the muscles 
attaching the limb to the breast bone, and employ strong traction on 
the limb so as to drag out the whole limb, shoulder blade included. The 
muscles around the upper part of the shoulder blade are easily torn 
through and need not be cut, even if that were possible. In no case 
should the fore-limb be removed unless the shoulder blade is taken with 
it, as that furnishes the greatest obstruction to delivery, above all when 
it is no longer advanced by the extension of the fore-limb, but is pressed 
back so as to increase the already thickest posterior portion of the 
chest. The preservation of the skin from the whole limb is advan- 
tageous in various ways ; it is easier to cut it circularly at the fetlock 
than at the shoulder; it covers the hand and knife in making the need- 
ful incisions, thus acting as a protection to the womb; and it affords a 



174 

means of traction on the body after the limb has been removed. In dis- 
secting' the skin from the limb the knife is not needful at all points; much 
of it may be stripped off with the fingers or knuckles, or by a blunt iron 
spud pushed up inside the hide, which is meanwhile held tense to ren- 
der the spud effective. 

Amputation of the head. — This is easy when both fore-limbs are turned 
back and the head alone has made its exit in part. It is more difficult 
when the head is still retained in the passages or womb, as in double- 
headed monsters. The head is secured by a hook in the lower jaw, or 
in the orbit, or by a halter, and the skin is divided circularly around 
the lower part of the face or at the front of the ears, according to the 
amouut of head protruding. Then an incision is made backward along 
the line of the throat, and the skin dissected from the neck as far back 
as possible. Then the muscles and other soft parts of the neck are cut 
across, and the bodies of two vertebrae (neck bones) are severed by 
cutting completely across the cartilage of the joint. The bulging of 
the ends of the bones will serve to iudicate the seat of the joint. The 
head and detached portion of the neck may now be removed by steady 
pulling. If there is still an obstacle the knife may be again used to 
sever any obstinate connections. In the case of a double-headed mon- 
ster, the whole of the second neck must be removed with the head. 
When the head has been detached a rope should be passed through 
the eye-holes, or through an artificial opening in the skin, and tied 
firmly around the skin, to be employed as a means of traction when the 
missing limbs or the second head have been brought up into position. 

Amputation of the hind limb. — This may be required when there are 
extra hind limbs, or when the hind limbs are bent forward at hock or 
hip joint. In the former condition the procedure resembles that for 
removal of a fore-limb, but requires more anatomical knowledge. Hav- 
ing noosed the pastern, a circular incision is made through the skin 
around the fetlock, and a longitudinal one from that up to the groin, 
and the skin is dissected from the limb as high up as can be reached, 
over the croup if possible. Then cut through the muscles around the 
hip joint, and, if possible, the two interarticular ligaments of the joint 
(pubiofemoral and round), and extract the limb by strong dragging. 

In case the limb is bent forward at the hock, a rope is passed round 
that and pulled so as to bring the point of the hock between the lips 
of the vulva. The hamstring and the lateral ligaments of the hock are 
now cut through, and the limbs extended by a rope tied round the 
lower end of the long bone above (tibia). In case ii is still needful to 
remove the upper part of the limb, the further procedure is the same 
as described in the last paragraph. 

In case the limb is turned forward from the hip, and the foetus so 
wedged into the passage that turning is impossible, the case is very 
difficult. I have repeatedly succeeded by cutting in on the hip joint 
and disarticulating it, then dissecting the muscles back from the upper 



175 

end of the thigh bone. A noose was placed around the neck of the bone 
and pulled on forcibly, while any unduly resisting structures were cut 
with the knife. 

Oartwright recommends to make free incisions round the hip joints 
and tear through the muscles when they can not be cut; then with 
cords round the pelvic bones, and hooks inserted in the openings in the 
floor of the pelvis to drag out the pelvic bones; then put cords around 
the heads of the thigh bones aud extract them; then remove the intes- 
tines; and finally, by means of the loose, detached skin, draw out the 
body with the remainder of the hind limbs bent forward beneath it. 

Keuff cuts his way into the pelvis of the foal, and with a knife separ- 
ates the pelvic bones from the loins, then skinning the quarter draws 
out these pelvic bones by means of ropes and hooks, and along with 
them the hind limbs. 

The hind limbs having been removed by one or the other of these pro- 
cedures, the loose skin detached from the pelvis is used as a means of 
traction and delivery is effected. If it has been a monstrosity with ex- 
tra hind limbs, it may be possible to bring these up into the passage 
and utilize them for traction. 

Removal of the abdominal viscera. — In case where the belly is unduly 
large, from decomposition, tumors, or otherwise, it may be needful to 
lay it open with the knife and cut or tear out the contents. 

Removal of the thoracic viscera. — To diminish the bulk of the chest it 
has been found advisable to cut out the breast-bone, remove the heart 
and lungs, and allow the ribs to collapse with the lower free ends over- 
lapping each other. 

Dissection of the trunk. — In case it becomes necessary to remove other 
portions of the trunk, the general rule should be followed of preserving 
the skin so that all manipulations can be made inside this as a pro- 
tector, that it may remain available as a means of exercising traction 
on the remaining parts of the body, and as a covering to protect the 
vaginal walls against injuries from bones while such part is passing. 

FLOODING BLEEDING FROM THE WOMB. 

This is rare in the mare, but not unknown, in connection with a fail- 
ure of the womb to contract on itself after parturition, or with e version 
of the womb (casting the withers), and congestion or laceration. If the 
blood accumulates in the flaccid womb the condition may only be sus- 
pected by reason of the rapidly advancing weakness, swaying, unsteady 
gait, hanging head, paleness of the eyes and other mucous membranes, 
and weak, small, failing pulse. The hand introduced into the womb 
detects the presence of the blood partly clotted. If the blood escapes 
by the vulva the condition is evident. 

Treatment consists in evacuating the womb of its blood clots, giving 
a large dose of powdered ergot of rye, and in the application of cold 
water or ice to the loins and external generative organs, Beside this 



176 

a sponge impregnated with a strong solution of alum, or, still better, 
with tincture of muriate of iron may be introduced into the womb and 
squeezed so as to bring the liquid in contact Avith the walls generally. 

EVERSION OF THE WOMB. 

If the womb fails to contract after difficult parturition, the after-pains 
will sometimes lead to the fundus passing into the body of the organ 
and passing through that and the vagina until the whole inverted organ 
appears externally and hangs down on the thighs. The result is rapid 
engorgemeut and swelling of the organ, impaction of the rectum with 
faeces, and distention of the bladder with urine, all of which conditions 
seriously interfere with the return of the mass. In returning the womb 
the standing is preferable to the recumbent position, as the abdomen 
is more pendant and there is less obstruction to the return. It may, 
however, be necessary to put hobbles on the hind limbs to prevent the 
mare from kicking. A. clean sheet should be held beneath the womb 
and all filth, straw, and foreign bodies washed from its surface. Then 
with a broad, elastic (india-rubber) band, or in default of that a long 
strip of calico 4 or 5 inches wide, wind the womb as tightly as possible, 
beginning at its most dependent part (the extremity of the horn). This 
serves two good ends. It squeezes out into the general circulation the 
enormous mass of blood which engorged and enlarged the organ, and 
it furnishes a strong protective covering for the now delicate friable 
organ, through which it may be safely manipulated without danger of 
laceration. The next step may be the pressure on the general mass 
while those portions next the vulva are gradually pushed in with the 
hands; or the extreme lowest point (the end of the horn) may be turned 
within itself and pushed forward into the vagina by the closed fist, the 
return being assisted by manipulations by the other hand, aud even by 
those of assistants. By either mode the manipulations may be made 
with almost perfect safety so long as the organ is closely 'wrapped in 
the bandage. Once a portion has been introduced into the vagina the 
rest will usually follow with increasing ease, and the operation should 
be completed with the hand and arm extended the full length within 
the womb and moved from point to point so as to straighten out all parts 
of the organ and insure that no portion still remains iu verted within 
another portion. Should any such partial inversion be left it will give 
rise to straining, under the force of which it will gradually increase 
until the whole mass will be protruded as before. The next step is to 
apply a truss as an effectual mechanical barrier to further escape of 
the womb through the vulva. The simplest is made with two inch ropes, 
each about 18 feet long. These are each doubled aud interwoven at 
the bend, as seen in Plate VIII, Fig. 4. The ring formed by the inter- 
lacing of the two ropes is adjusted around the vulva, the two ends of 
the one rope are carried up on the right and left of the tail and along 
the spine, being wound round each other in their course, and are finally 



177 

tied to the upper part of the collar encircling the neck. The remain- 
ing two ends, belonging to the other rope, are carried downward and 
forward between the thighs and thence forward and upward on the 
sides of the belly aud chest to be attached to the right and left sides of 
the collar. These roprs are drawn tightly enough to keep closely ap- 
plied to the opening without chafing, and will fit still more securely 
when the mare raises her back to strain. It is desirable to tie the mare 
short so that she may be unable to lie down for a day or two, and she 
should be kept in a stall with the hind parts higher than the fore. Violent 
straining may be checked by full doses of opium (one-half dram), and 
any costiveuess or diarrhea should be obviated by a suitable laxative or 
binding diet. 

In some mares the contractions are too violent to allow of the return 
of the womb, and full doses of opium (one-half dram), laudanum (two 
ounces), or chloral hydrate (one ounce) may be demanded, or the mare 
must be rendered insensible by ether or chloroform. 

RUPTURE OR LACERATION OF THE WOMB. 

This may occur from the feet of the foal during parturition, or from 
ill directed efforts to assist, but it is especially liable to take place in 
the everted, congested, and friable organ. The resultant dangers are 
bleeding from the wound, escape of the bowels through the opening 
and their fatal inju^ by the mare's feet or otherwise, and peritonitis 
from the extension of inflammation from the wound and from the pois- 
onous action of the septic liquids of the womb escaping into the ab- 
dominal cavity. The first object is to close the wound, but unless in 
eversion of the womb this is practically impossible. In the last named 
condition the wound must be carefully and accurately sewed up before 
the womb is returned. After its return, the womb must be injected 
daily with an antiseptic solution (borax one-half ounce or carbolic acid 
3 drachms to a quart of tepid water). If inflammation threatens, 
the abdomeu may be bathed continuously with hot water by means of 
a heavy woolen rag, and large doses of opium (one-half dram) may be 
given twice or thrice daily. 

RUPTURES OF THE VAGINA. 

These are attended by dangers similar to those belonging to rupture 
of the Tromb, and in addition by the risk of protrusion of the bladder, 
which appears through the lips of the vulva as a red pyriform mass. 
Sometimes such lacerations extend downward into the bladder, and 
in others upward into the terminal gut (rectum). In still other cases 
the anus is torn so that it forms one common orifice with the vulva. 

Too often such cases prove fatal, or at least a recovery is not at- 
tained, and urine or feces or both escape freely into the vagina. The 
11035 12 



178 

simple laceration of the anus is easily sewed up, but the ends of the 
muscular fibers do not reunite and the control over the lower bowel is 
never fully re-acquired. The successful stitching up of the wound com- 
municating with the bladder or the rectum requires unusual skill and 
care, and though I have succeeded in a case of the latter kind, I can 
not advise the attempt by unprofessional persons. 

BLOOD OLOTS IN THE WALLS OF THE VAGINA. 

See "Obstructions to parturition." 

INFLAMMATION OF THE WOMB AND PERITONEUM. 

These may result from injuries sustained by the womb during or 
after parturition, from exposure to cold or wet, or from the irritant ac- 
tion of putrid products within the womb. Under the inflammation the 
womb remains dilated and flaccid, and decomposition of its secretions 
almost always occurs, so that the inflammation tends to assume a putrid 
character and general septic infection is likely to occur. 

The symptoms are ushered in by shivering, staring coat, small rapid 
pulse, elevated temperature, accelerated breathing, inappetence, with 
arched back, stiff movement of the body, looking back at the flanks, 
and uneasy motions of the hind limbs, discharge from the vulva of a 
liquid at first watery, reddish, or yellowish, and later it may be whitish 
or glairy, and fetid or not in different cases. Tenderness of the abdo- 
men shown on pressure is especially characteristic of cases affecting 
the peritoneum or lining of the belly, and is more marked lower down. 
If the animal survives, the inflammation tends to become chronic and 
attended by a whitish mucopurulent discharge. If, on the contrary, 
it proves fatal, death is preceded by extreme prostration and weakness 
from the general septic poisoning. 

In treatment the first thing to be sought is the removal of all offen- 
sive and irritant matters from the womb through a caoutchouc tube in- 
troduced into the womb, and into which a funnel is fitted. Warm water 
should be passed until it comes away clear. To insure that all of the 
womb has been washed out, the oiled hand may be introduced to carry 
the end of the tube into the two horns successively. When the offen- 
sive contents have been thus removed, the womb should be injected 
with a quart of water holding in solution one half ounce permanganate 
of potash, or, in the absence of the latter, two teaspoonf uls of carbolic 
acid. Repeat twice daily. Fomentation of the abdomen, or the appli- 
cation of a warm flax-seed poultice, may greatly relieve. Acetanilid, 
in doses of half an ounce, repeated twice or thrice a day, or sulphate 
of quinia in doses of one-third ounce, may be employed to reduce the 
fever. If the great prostration indicates septic poisoning large doses 
(one-half ounce) bisulphite of soda, or salicylate of soda may be re- 
sorted to. 



179 

LEUCORRHCEA. 

This is a white, glutinous, chronic discharge, the result of a continued 
sub-acute inflammation of the mucous membrane of the womb. Like the 
discharge of acute inflammation it contains mauy forms of bacteria, by 
some of which it is manifestly inoculable on the penis of the stallion, 
producing ulcers and a specific gonorrhoeal discharge. 

Treatment may consist in the internal use of tonics (sulphate of iron 
3 drams daily), and the washing out of the womb, as described under 
the last heading, followed by an astringent antiseptic injection (car- 
bolic acid 2 teaspoonfuls, tannic acid one-half dram, water one quart). 
This may be repeated two or three times a day. 

LAMINITIS OR FOUNDER FOLLOWING PARTURITION. 

This sometimes follows on inflammation of the womb, as it frequently 
does on disorder of the stomach. Its symptoms agree with those of the 
common form of founder, and treatment need not differ. 

DISEASES OF THE UDDEE AND TEATS— CONGESTION AND INFLAM- 
MATION OF THE UDDER. 

This is comparatively rare in the mare, though in some cases the ud- 
der becomes painfully engorged before parturition, and a doughy swell- 
ing, pitting on pressure, extends forward on the lower surface of the 
abdomen. When this goes on to active inflammation one or both of the 
glands become enlarged, hot, tense, and painful; the milk is dried up 
or replaced by a watery or reddish serous fluid, which at times becomes 
fetid ; the animal walks lame, loses appetite, and shows general disor- 
der and fever. The condition may end in recovery, in abscess, indu- 
ration, or gangrene, aud in some cases may lay the foundation for a tu- 
mor of the gland. 

The treatment is simple so long as there is only congestion. Active 
rubbing with lard or oil, or better, camphorated oil, and the frequent 
drawing off of the milk, by the foal or with the hand, will usually bring 
about a rapid improvement. When active inflammation is present fo- 
mentation with warm water may be kept up for an hour and followed 
by the application of the camphorated oil, to which has been added some 
carbonate of soda and extract of belladonna. A dose of laxative medi- 
cine (4 drams Barbadoes aloes) will be of service in reducing fever, and 
one half ounce saltpeter daily will serve a similar end. In case the milk 
coagulates in the udder and can not be withdrawn, or when the liquid 
becomes fetid, a solution of 20 grains carbonate of soda and 10 drops 
carbolic acid dissolved in an ounce of water should be injected into the 
teat. In doing this it must be noted that the mare has three separate 
ducts opening on the summit of each teat and each must be carefully in- 
jected. To draw off the fetid product it may be needful to use a small 
milking tube, or spring teat-dilator designed by the writer (Plate VIII, 



180 

figs. 2 and 3.) When pus forms and points externally, and can not 
find a free escape by the teat, the spot where it fluctuates must be 
opened freely with the knife and the cavity injected daily with the car- 
bolic acid lotion. When the gland becomes hard and indolent it may 
be rubbed daily with iodine ointment 1 part, vaseline 6 parts. 

TUMORS OF THE UDDER. 

As the result of inflammation of the udder it may become the seat of 
an indurated diseased growth, which may go on growing and seriously 
interfere with the movement of the hiud limbs. If such swellings will 
not give way in their early stages to treatment by iodino the only re- 
sort is to cut them out with a knife. As the gland is often implicated 
and has to be removed, such mares can not in the future suckle their 
colts, and therefore should not be bred. 

SORE TEATS, SCABS, CRACKS, WARTS. 

By the act of sucking, especially in cold weather, the teats are sub- 
ject to abrasions, cracks, and scabs, and as the result of such irritation, 
or independently, warts sometimes grow aud prove troublesome. The 
warts should be clipped off with sharp scissors aud their roots burned 
with a solid pencil of lunar caustic. This is best done before parturi- 
tion to secure healing before suckling begius. For sore teats use an 
ointment of vaseline 1 ounce, balsam of tolu 5 graius, aud sulphate of 
zinc 5 grains. 



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DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 



By M. R. TRUMBOWER, V. S. 



THE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE BRAIN AND NERVOUS 

SYSTEM. 

The nervous system may be regarded as consisting of two sets of 
organs, peripheral and central, the function of one being to establish a 
communication between the centers and the different parts of the body, 
and that of the other to generate nervous force. The whole may be 
arranged under two divisions : First. The cerebrospinal or nervous sys- 
tem of animal life. Second. The sympathetic, ganglionic, or nervous 
system of organic life. Each is possessed of its own central and periph- 
eral organs. 

In the first, the center is made up of two portions, one large and 
expanded- the brain — placed in the crauial cavity; the other elon- 
gated — spinal cord — continuous with the brain, and lodged in the canal 
of the vertebral column. The i)eripheral portion of this system consists 
of the cerebro-spinal nerves, which leave the axis in symmetrical pairs, 
and are distributed to the skin, the voluntary muscles, and the organs 
of common and spinal sensation. 

In the second, the central organ consists of a chain of ganglia con- 
nected by nerve cords, which extends from the head to the rump on 
each side of the spine. The nerves of this system are distributed to the 
involuntary muscles, mucous membrane, viscera, and blood vessels. 

The two systems have free intercommunication, ganglia being at the 
junctions. 

Two substances, distinguishable by their color, enter into the forma- 
tion of nervous matter, viz, the white or medullary, and the gray or 
cortical substance. Both are soft, fragile, and easily injured, in con- 
sequence of which the principal nervous centers are always well pro- 
tected by bony coverings. The nervous substances present two dis- 
tinct forms — nerve fibers and nerve cells. An aggregation of nerve cells 
constitutes a nerve ganglion. 

The nerve fibers represent a conducting apparatus, and serve to 
place the central nervous orgaus in connection with peripheral end 

181 



182 

organs. The nerve cells, however, besides transmitting impulses, act 
as physiological centers for automatic or reflex movements, and also 
for the sensory, perceptive, trophic, and secretory functions. A nerve 
consists of a bundle of tubular fibers, held together by a dense areolar 
tissue, and inclosed in a membranous sheath — the neurilemma. Nerve 
fibers possess no elasticity, but are very strong. Divided nerves do not 
retract. 

Nerves are thrown into a state of excitement when stimulated, and 
are, therefore, said to possess excitable or irritable properties. The 
stimuli may be applied to, or may act upon any part of the nerve. 
Nerves may be paralyzed by continuous pressure being applied. When 
the nerves divide into branches, there is never any splitting up of their 
ultimate fibers, nor yet is there ever any coalescing of them ; they 
retain their individuality from their source to their termination. 

Nerves which convey impressions to the centers are termed sensory 
or centripetal, and those which transmit stimulus from the centers to 
organs of motion are termed motor or centrifugal. 

The function of the nervous system may, therefore, be defined in the 
simplest terms, as follows: It is intended to associate the different parts 
of the body in such a manner that stimulus applied to one organ may ex- 
cite or depress the activity of another. 

The brain is that portion of the cerebro-spinal axis within the cra- 
nium, which may be divided into four parts — the medulla oblongata, the 
cerebellum, the pons Varolii, and the cerebrum, and it is covered by three 
membranes called the meninges. The first of these membranes, the 
dura mater, is a thick, white, fibrous membrane which lines the cavity 
of the cranium, forming the internal periosteum of the bones; it is con- 
tinuous with the spinal cord to the extremity of the canal. The second, 
the arachnoid, is a delicate serous membrane, and loosely envelops the 
brain and spinal cord; it forms two layers, leaving between them the 
arachnoid space which contains the cerebro-spinal fluid, the use of 
which is to protect the spinal cord and brain from pressure. The third, 
the pia mater, is closely adherent to the entire surface of the brain, but 
is much thinner and more vascular than when it reaches the spinal cord 
which it also envelops, and is continued to form the sheaths of the 
spinal nerves. 

The medulla oblongata is the prolongation of the spinal cord, extend- 
ing to the pons Varolii. This portion of the brain is very large iu the 
horse; it is pyramidal in shape, the narrowest part joining the cord. 

The pons Varolii is the transverse projection on the base of the brain, 
between the medulla oblongata and the peduncles of the cerebrum. 

The cerebellum is lodged in the posterior part of the cranial cavity, 
immediately above the medulla oblongata; it is globular or elliptical in 
shape, the transverse diameter being greatest. The body of the cere- 
bellum is composed of gray matter externally and white in the center. 

The cerebrum, or brain proper, occupies the anterior portion of the 



183 

cranial cavity. It is ovoid in shape, with an irregular flattened base, 
and consists of lateral halves or hemispheres. The greater part of 
the cerebrum is composed of white matter. The hemispheres of the 
cerebrum are usually said to be the seat of all psychical activities. 
Only when they are intact are the processes of feeling, thinking, and 
willing possible. After they are destroyed, the organism comes to be 
like a complicated machine, and its activity is only the expression of the 
internal and external stimuli which act upon it. The cerebellum is the 
great and important central organ for the finer co-ordination and inte- 
gration of movements. Injuries to the cerebellum cause disturbance of 
the equilibrium of the body, but do not interfere with the psychical 
activities or the will or consciousness, neither does an injury to these 
parts give rise to pain. 

The spinal cord or spinal marrow is that part of the cerebro-spinal 
system which is contained in the spinal canal of the backbone, and 
extends from the medulla oblongata to a short distance behind the 
loins. It is an irregularly cylindrical structure, divided into two 
lateral symmetrical halves by fissures. The spinal cord terminates 
posteriorly in a pointed extremity, which is continued by a mass of ner- 
vous trunks — cauda equina. A transverse section of the cord reveals 
that it is composed of white matter externally and of gray internally. 
The spinal cord does not fill up the whole spinal canal. The latter con- 
tains, besides, a large venous sinus, fatty matter, the membranes of the 
cord, and the cerebro-spinal fluid. 

The spinal nerves, forty-two or forty-three in number, arise each by 
two roots, a superior or sensory and an inferior or motor. The nerves 
originating from the brain are twenty-four in number, and arranged in 
pairs, which are named first, second, third, etc., counting from before 
backward. They also receive special names, according to their func- 
tions, or the parts to which they are distributed, viz : 



1. Olfactory. 

2. Optic. 

3. Oculomotor. 

4. Pathetic. 

5. Trifacial. 

6. Abduceus. 



7. Facial. 

8. Auditory. 

9. Glosso-Pharyngeal. 

10. Pneumogastric. 

11. Spinal- Accessory. 

12. Hypoglossal. 



INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN AND ITS MEMBRANES. 

Inflammation may attack these membranes singly, or any one of the 
anatomical divisions of the nerve matter, or it may invade the whole 
at once. Practical experience, however, teaches us that primary in- 
flammation of the dura mater is of rare occurrence, except in direct 
mechanical injuries to the head or diseases of the bones of the cranium. 
Neither is the arachnoid often affected with acute inflammation except 
as a secondary result. The pia mater is most commonly the seat of 
inflammation, acute and subacute, but from its intimate relation with 
the surface of the brain the latter very soon becomes involved in the 



184 

morbid changes. Practically, we can not separate inflammation of the 
pia mater from that of the brain proper. Inflammation may, however, 
exist in the center of the great nerve masses, the cerebrum, cerebellar, 
pons Varolii, or medulla at the base of the brain, without involving 
the surface. When, therefore, inflammation invades the brain and its 
enveloping membranes it is properly called encephalitis ; when the 
membranes alone are affected it is called meningitis ; or the brain sub- 
stance alone, cerebritis. 

ENCEPHALITIS — INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN AND ITS MEMBRANES. 

Causes. — Exposure to extreme heat or cold, excessive continued cere- 
bral excitement, direct injuries to the brain, such as concussion, or from 
fracture of the cranium, sometimes as a sequelae to influenza, pyaemia, 
poisons having a direct influence upon the encephalic mass, etc. 

Symptoms. — Acute encephalitis may be ushered iu by an increased 
sensibility to noises, with more or less nervous excitability, contraction 
of the pupil of the eyes, and a quick, hard pulse. In very acute attacks 
these symptoms, however, are not always noted. This condition will 
soon be followed by muscular twitchiugs, convulsive or spasmodic move- 
ments, eyes wide open with shortness of sight. The animal becomes 
afraid to have his head handled. Convulsions and delirium will develop, 
with inability of muscular control, or stupor and coma may supervene. 
Where the membranes are greatly implicated convulsions and delirium 
with violence may be expected, but where the brain substances is prin- 
cipally affected stupor and coma will be the prominent symptoms. In 
the former condition the pulse will be quick and hard, in the latter soft 
or depressed with often a dilatation of the pupils, and deep, slow, ster- 
terous breathing. The symptoms may follow one another in rapid suc- 
cession, and the disease approach a fatal termination in less than twelve 
hours. In subacute attacks the symptoms are better defined, aud the 
animal seldom dies before the third day. Within three or four days 
gradual improvement may become manifest, or cerebral softening with 
partial paralysis may occur. In all cases of encephalitis there is a 
marked rise in temperature from the very onset of the disease, with a 
tendency to increase until the most alarming symptoms develop, suc- 
ceeded by a decrease when coma becomes manifested. The violence 
and character of the symptoms greatly depend upon the extent and 
location of the structures involved. Thus, in some cases we may find 
marked paralysis of certain muscles, while in others we may have spas- 
modic rigidity of muscles in a certain region. Very rarely the animal 
becomes extremely violent early iu the attack, and by rearing up, strik- 
ing with the fore feet, or falling over, may do himself great injury. 
Usually, however, the animal maintains the standing position, propping 
himself against the manger or wall until he falls from inability of mus- 
cular control or unconsciousness. Occasionally he may go through a 



185 

series of automatic movements in his delirium, such as trotting or walk- 
ing, and if loose in a stall will move around in a circle persistently. 
Early and persistent constipatiou of the bowels is a marked symptom 
in nearly all acute affections of the brain ; retention of the urine, also, 
is frequently observed. 

Chronic encephalitis. — This may succeed the acute stage, or may be 
due to stable miasma, blood-poison, narcotism, lead-poisoning, etc. 
Contrary to acute encephalitis, this form is not characterized iu its ini- 
tial stages by excitability, quick and hard pulse, and high fever. The 
animal appears at first stupid; eats slowly; the pupil of the eye does 
not respoud to light quickly; the animal often throws up his head Oi 
shakes it as if suffering sudden twinges of pain. He is slow and slug- 
gish in his movements, or there may be partial paralysis of one limb, 
one side of the face, neck, or body. These symptoms, with some varia- 
tions, may be present for several days and then subside, or the disease 
may pass into the acute stage and terminate fatally. Chronic encepha- 
litis may affect an animal for ten days or two weeks without much var- 
iation in the symptoms before the crisis is reached. If improvement 
commences the symptoms usually disappear in the reverse order in 
which they developed with the exception of the paralytic effects, which 
remain intractible or permanent. Paralysis of certain sets of muscles 
is a very common result of chronic, subacute, and acute encephalitis, 
and is due to softening of the brain, or to exudation into the cavities 
of the brain or arachnoid space. 

MENINGITIS — THE MAD STAGGERS OF THE OLD WRITERS — INFLAM- 
MATION OF THE CEREBRAL ENVELOPES. 

Causes. — Excess of heat or cold, wounds of the cranium and mem- 
branes, rheumatism, influenza, rupture of meningeal blood-vessels, etc. 

Symptoms. — In an attack of acute meningitis the symptoms appear 
very suddenly aud are often extremely violent. The violent pain in the 
head is indicated by the animal flying back in the halter, plunging for- 
ward or running ahead, regardless of obstacles or obstructions in the 
way. The pulse is very rapid, the breathing accelerated or panting, 
the pupils of the eyes contracted, and the muscles of the body quiver- 
ing. All these symptoms may develop within a few minutes or in a 
few hours. If the animal does not obtain relief, spasms or rigidity of 
the muscles along one or both sides of the neck or back will become 
manifest, the head will be held elevated, the eyeballs will retract 
into their sockets, the eye-lids twitch, convulsions and furious delirium 
will soon appear, followed by coma and death. Acute meningitis 
may result fatally in a very few hours. During the whole course of the 
disease the more violent symptoms occur in paroxysms, and the least 
noise or disturbance serves to induce them. In the quiescent periods 
the animal appears dull and drowsy. The urine is frequently ejected 
in spurts aud strong efforts are made to pass manure. In subacute 



186 

meningitis the symptoms will develop more slowly and be less marked 
by violence. The sensory functions may not be much interfered with 
until the near approach of death. In such attacks the animal may 
suffer for a week or longer and ultimately recover. In meningitis the 
temperature varies from 103° to 107° F., according to the severity of 
the attack. 

The violent symptoms of this disease must not be confounded with 
those of rabies. In the latter the violence is directed at some object or 
upon the animal himself; in the former no malice is shown toward the at- 
tendant or surrounding objects, but is simply the manifestation of ex- 
cruciating pain in the head. Meningitis may be distinguished from 
encephalitis and cerebritis by the absence of marked localized paralytic 
symptoms, or of coma, until the near approach of death. It is charac- 
terized by violence, increased sensibility, and delirium. 

CEREBRITIS — INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN SUBSTANCE. 

Causes. — The causes giving rise to this disease are very numerous. 
Among them may be mentioned all those named heretofore as causing 
encephalitis and meningitis, cystic and calcareous tumors, thrombi, 
uraernic poisoning, metastatic abscesses, septic infection, etc. 

Symptoms. — Cerebritis, when unaccompanied by other disease, is sel- 
dom recognized as such during life. It is always localized in extent, 
and the symptoms manifested depend upon the location of the organic 
change for their character. The symptoms, therefore, are as varied as 
the causes; they are usually of slow development and persistent. Ver- 
tigo or giddiness may be regarded as a constant symptom. The ani- 
mal may stop on the road, shake his head, or stagger, apparently un- 
decided in what direction to go. There may be contraction of the pu- 
pils, cramp of the muscles on the side of the neck or face, pulse small 
and hard and variable in frequency, often, however, slower than normal. 
The temperature is slightly increased, the respiratious may be slow aud 
deep, the appetite capricious, bowels constipated; rapid emaciation is 
a common symptom. ISuch conditions may be apparent for a week or 
two weeks; then the horse may become comatose. The pupils dilate, 
the pulse becomes intermitting, swallowing difficult, the muscles which 
were previously rigid become relaxed and paralyzed, and the urine may 
either be retained or be discharged involuntarily. In this way the ani- 
mal may survive another week and then die in a paralyzed and uncon- 
scious state. Not infrequently, however, few of those symptoms are 
manifested, for in some cases the paralysis "Is sudden from extensive 
lesions of the brain, and the animal may die within twenty -four hours. 

SOFTENING AND ABSCESS OF THE BRAIN. 

This is one of the terminations of cerebritis. It may also be due to 
an insufficient supply of blood as a result of diseased cerebral arteries 
and of apoplexy. 



187 

Symptoms.— Drowsiness, vertigo, or attacks of giddiness, increased 
timidity, or fear of familiar objects, paralysis of one limb, hemiplegia, 
imperfect control of the limbs, and usually a weak, intermittent pulse. 
In some cases the symptoms are analagous to those of apoplexy. The 
character of the symptoms depends upon the seat of the softening or 
abscess within the brain. 

CEREBRAL SCLEROSIS. 

This is a result of an inflammation in the structure of the brain af- 
fecting the connective tissues, which eventually become hypertrophied 
and press upon nerve cells and fibers, causing their ultimate disappear- 
ance, leaving the parts hard and indurated. 

Symptoms. — This condition gives rise to a progressive paralysis, and 
may extend along a certain bundle of fibers into the spinal cord. Com- 
plete paralysis almost invariably supervenes and causes death. 

PATHOLOGY OP ACUTE BRAIN AFFECTIONS. 

On making post mortem examinations of horses which have died in 
the first stages of either of those diseases, we will find an excessive en- 
gorgement of the capillaries and small blood-vessels, with correspond- 
ingly increased redness and molecular changes in both contents and 
the walls of the vessels. If the death has occurred at a later period of 
the disease, in addition to the redness and engorgement we will find 
that an exudation of the contents of the blood-vessels into the tissues 
and upon the surfaces of the inflamed parts has supervened. If the 
case has been one of encephalitis we will usually find more or less wa- 
tery fluid in the ventricles (natural cavities in the brain), in the sub- 
arachnoid space, and a serous exudation between the convolutions and 
interstitial spaces of the gray matter under the membranes of the brain. 
The amount of fluid varies in different cases. In some where the ani- 
mal's blood was very plastic, exudations of a membranous character 
may be present and are found attached to the surface of the pia mater. 

In meningitis, especially in chronic cases, in addition to the serous 
effusion, we find changes which may be regarded as characteristic in the 
formation of a delicate and highly vascular layer or layers of membrane 
or organized structure on the surface of the dura mater, and also indi- 
cations of hemorrhages in connection with the membrauous formations. 
Hasmatoma or blood tumors may be found embedded in this membrane. 
In some cases the hemorrhages are copious, causing paralysis or 
apoplexy, followed by speedy death. 

In cerebritis, or inflammation of the interior of the brain, there is a 
tendency to softening and suppuration and the formation of abscesses. 
In some cases the abscesses are small and numerous, surrounded with 
a softened condition of the brain matter, and sometimes we may find 
one large abscess. In cases of recent development the walls of the ab- 
scesses are fringed and ragged and have no lining membrane. In older 



188 

or chronic cases, the walls of the abscesses are generally lined with a 
strong membrane, often having the appearance of a sac or cyst, and the 
contents have a very offensive odor. 

Treatment. — In all acute attacks of inflammation involving the mem- 
branes or cerebral masses, it is the pressure from the distended and 
engorged blood-vessels, and the rapid accumulation of inflammatory 
products, that endangers the life of the animal iu even the very early 
stage of the disease. The earlier the treatment is commenced to lessen 
the danger of fatal pressure from the engorged blood-vessels, the less 
amount of inflammatory products and effusion we have to contend with 
later on. The leading object then to be accomplished iu the treatment 
of the first stages of encephalitis, meningitis, or cerebritis is to relieve 
the engorgement of the blood-vessels before a dangerous degree of effu- 
sion or exudation has taken place, and thereby lessen the irritation or 
excitability of the affected structures. If we fully succeed in this stage 
in the accomplishment of this object, we certainly prevent a second 
stage of the disease, and it will only be required to continue a treat- 
ment which will tend to lessen irritability to prevent a second engorge- 
ment from taking place. But if the attempt to relieve the engorgement 
in the first stage has been only partially successful, and the second 
stage with its inflammatory products and exudations, whether serous 
or plastic, has set iu, then the main objects iu further treatment are to 
keep up the strength of the animal and hasten the absorption of the 
exudative products as much as possible. To obtain these results, when 
the animal is found in the initial stage of the disease, where there is 
unnatural excitability or stupor with increase of temperature and quick- 
ened pulse, we must rely upon the safest and quickest acting remedy 
at hand, which is copious bleeding from the jugular vein. Especially 
in acute meningitis, bleeding is imperatively demanded. The finger 
should be kept on the pulse, and the blood allowed to flow until there 
is a marked fluttering or softening of the pulse. As soon as the animal 
recovers somewhat from the shock of the bleeding, the following medi- 
cine should be made into a ball or dissolved in a pint of warm water, 
and be given at one dose : Barbadoes aloes, 7 drams ; calomel, 2 drams ; 
powdered ginger, 1 dram; tincture of aconite, 20 drops. 

The animal should be placed in a cool, dark place, as free from noise 
as possible, and cloths wrung out of hot water placed on his head. 
These should be renewed frequently for at least twelve hours. When 
the auimal becomes thirsty half an ounce of saltpeter may be dissolved 
in his drinking water every six hours. Injections of warm water into 
the rectum may facilitate the action of the purgative. Norwood's tiuct- 
ure of veratrum viride, in 20 drop doses, should be given every hour, 
and one dram of solid extract of belladonna every four hours, until 
the symptoms become modified and the pulse regular and full. 

If this treatment fails to give relief the disease will pass into the ad- 
vanced stages, or if the animal has been neglected in the early stages 



189 

the treatment must be supplanted with the hypodermic injection of 
ergotin, in 5-grain doses, dissolved in a dram of water, every six 
hours. The limbs may be poulticed above the fetlocks with mustard. 
Gold water or ice-bags should now take the place of the hot- water cloths 
on the head. Warm blanketing, to promote perspiration, is to be ob- 
served in all cases in which there is no excessive perspiration. 

If the disease becomes chronic — encephalitis or meningitis — we must 
place our reliance upon alteratives and tonics, with such incidental 
treatment as special symptoms may demaud. Iodide of potassium in 
2 : dram doses should be given twice a day, and 1 dram of calomel 
once a day, to induce absorption of effusions or thickened membranes. 
Tonics, in the form of iodide of iron in dram doses, to which is added 
2 drams of powdered hydrastis, may also be given every six or eight 
hours, as soon as the active fever has abated. In all cases, after the 
disappearance of the acute symptoms, blisters (cantharides ointment) 
should be applied behind the poll. When paralytic effects remain after 
the disappearance of all other symptoms, sulphate of strychnia in 2-graiu 
doses, in combination with the other tonics, may be given twice a day, 
and be continued until it produces muscular twitching. In some cases 
of paralysis, as of the lips or throat, benefit may be derived from the 
moderate use of the electric battery. Many of the recoveries will, how- 
ever, under the most active and early treatment, be but partial, and in 
all cases the animals become predisposed to subsequent attacks. A 
long period of time should be allowed to pass before the animal is ex- 
posed to severe work or great heat. When the disease depends upon 
mechanical injuries they have to be treated and all causes of irritation 
to the brain removed. If it is due to stable miasma, ursemic poison- 
ing, pyaemia, influenza, rheumatism, toxic agents, etc., they should 
receive prompt attention for their removal or mitigation. 

Cerebral softening, abscess, or sclerosis, are practically inaccessible 
to treatment, otherwise than such relief as may be afforded by the 
administration of opiates and general tonics, and, in fact, the diagno- 
sis is largely presumptive. 

CONGESTION OP THE BRAIN — MEGRIMS. 

Congestion of the brain consists in an accumulation of blood in the 
vessels, also called hvpersemia, or engorgement. It may be active or 
passive — active when there is an undue determination of blood or 
diminished arterial resistance, and passive when it accumulates in the 
vessels of the brain, owing to some obstacle to its return by the veins. 

Causes.— Active cerebral congestion may be due to hypertrophy of 
the left ventricle of the heart, excessive exertion, the influence of ex- 
treme heat, sudden and great excitement, artificial stimulants, etc. 
Passive congestion may be produced by any mechanical obstruction 
which prevents the proper return of blood through the veins to the 
heart, such as small or ill-fitting collar, which often impedes the blood 



190 

current, tumors or abcesses pressing ou the vein in its course, and or- 
ganic lesions of the heart with regurgitation. 

Extremely fat animals with short thick necks are peculiarly subject 
to attacks of cerebral congestion. Simple congestion, however, is 
merely afunctional affection, and in a slight or moderate degree involves 
no immediate danger. Extreme engorgement, on the contrary, may be 
followed by rupture of previously weakened arteries and capillaries 
and cause immediate death, designated then as a stroke of apoplexy. 

Symptoms. — Congestion of the brain is usually sudden in its mani- 
festation and of short duration. The animal may stop very suddenly 
and shake his head or stand quietly braced ou his legs, then stagger, 
make a plunge, and fall. The eyes are staring, breathing hurried and 
stertorous, and the nostrils widely dilated. This may be followed by 
coma, violent convulsive movements, and death. Generally, however, 
the animal gains relief in a short time, but he may remain weak and 
giddy for several days. If it is due to organic change of the heart or 
to disease of the blood-vessels in the brain, then the symptoms may be 
of slow development manifested by drowsiness, dimness or imperfect 
vision, difficulty in voluntary movements, diminished sensibility of the 
skin, loss of consciousness, delirium, and death. In milder cases effu- 
sion may take place in the arachnoid spaces and ventricles of the brain 
followed by paralysis and other complications. 

Pathology. — In congestion of the brain the cerebral vessels are loaded 
with blood, and the venous sinuses distended to an extreme degree, 
and the pressure exerted upon the brain constitutes actual compres- 
sion, giving rise to the symptoms just mentioned. On post mortem ex- 
aminations this engorgement is found universal throughout the brain 
and its membranes, which serves to distinguish it from inflammations 
of these structures, in which the engorgements are confined more or 
less to circumscribed portions. A prolonged congestion may, however, 
lead to active inflammation, and iu that case we will find serous and 
plastic exudations in the cavities of the brain. In addition to the in- 
tensely engorged condition of the vessels we find the gray matter of 
the brain redder in color than natural. In cases where several attacks 
have occurred the blood-vessels are often found permanently dilated. 

Treatment. — Prompt removal of all mechanical obstructions to the 
circulation. If it is due to venous obstruction by too tight a collar, the 
loosening of the collar will give immediate relief. If due to tumors or 
abscesses, a surgical operation becomes necessary to afford relief. To 
revive the animal if he become partially or totally unconscious cold 
water should be dashed on the head, and if this does not afford ready 
relief recourse must be had to bleeding to lessen arterial tension. Tinct- 
ure of veratrum viride or of aconite root may be given in twenty-drop 
doses every hour until consciousness returns. If the limbs are cold 
tincture of capsicum or strong mustard water should be applied to them. 
If symptoms of paralysis remain after two or three days, an active 



191 

cathartic and iodide of potassa will be indicated, to be given as pre- 
scribed for inflammation of the brain. 

Prevention. — Well adjusted collar, with strap running from the collar 
to the girth, to hold down the collar when pulling up grade; regular 
feed aud exercise, without allowing the animal to become excessively 
plethoric; moderate checking, allowing a free and easy movement of 
the head; well ventilated stabling, proper cleanliness, pure water, etc. 

SUNSTROKE — HEAT EXHAUSTION. 

The term sunstroke is applied to affections occasioned not exclusively 
by exposure to the sun's rays, as the word signifies, but by the action 
of great heat combined generally with other causes, such as dryness 
and rarefaction of the air and an unusual accumulation of electricity. 
Exhaustion produced by a long continued heat is often the essential 
factor, and is called heat exhaustion. Horses on the race track under- 
going protracted and severe work in hot weather often succumb to heat 
exhaustion. Draught horses exposed to the direct rays of the sun for 
many hours, which do not receive proper care in watering, feeding, rest 
in shady places, suffer very frequently from sunstroke. 

Symptoms. — Sunstroke is manifested suddenly. The animal stops, 
drops his head, begins to stagger, and soon falls to the ground uncon- 
scious. The breathing is marked with great stertor, the pulse is very 
slow aud irregular, cold sweats break out in patches on the surface of 
the body, and the animal often dies without recovering consciousness. 

In heat exhaustion the animal usually requires urging for some time 
previous to the appearance of any other symptoms, generally per- 
spiration is checked, and then he becomes weak in his gait, the 
breathing hurried or panting, eyes watery aud bloodshot, nostrils 
dilated and highly reddened, assuming a dark, purple color ; the pulse 
is rapid and weak, the heart bounding, followed by unconsciousuess 
and death. If recovery takes place convalescence extends over a long 
period of time, during which incoordination of movement may persist. 

Pathology. — Sunstroke, virtually active congestion of the brain, often 
accompanied by effusion and blood extravasation, characterizes this 
condition, with often rapid and fatal lowering of all the vital functions. 
The death may be due in many instances to the complete stagnation in 
the circulation of the brain, inducing anaemia or want of nourishment 
of that organ. In other cases it may be directly due to the excessive 
compression of the nerve matter controlling the heart's action, and 
cause paralysis of that organ. 

Treatment. — Under no circumstances is blood-letting permissible in 
sunstroke. Ice or very cold water should be applied to the head and 
along the spine and half an ounce of carbonate of ammonia or 6 ounces 
of whisky should be given in a pint of water. Injections, per rectum, 
of moderately strong ginger tea or weak ammonia water may be used 
with benefit. Brisk friction of the limbs and the application of spirits 



192 

of camphor often yield good results. The administration of the stimu- 
lants should be repeated in one hour if the pulse has not become 
stronger and slower. If the animal is suffering from heat exhaustion 
similar treatment may be used, with the exception of cold to the head 
and spine, for in this case cloths wrung out in hot water should be ap- 
plied. In either case, when reaction has occurred preparations of iron 
and general tonics may be given during convalescence : Sulphate of 
iron 1 dram, gentian 3 drams, red cinchona bark 2 drams; mix and 
give in the feed morning and evening. 

Prevention. — In very hot weather horses should have wet sponges or 
light sun-shades on the head when at work, or the head may be sponged 
with cold water as many times a day as possible. Proper attention 
should be given to feeding and watering, never in excess. During 
the warm months all stables should be cool and well ventilated, and if 
an animal is debilitated from exhaustive work or disease he should re- 
ceive such treatment as will tend to build up the system. 

An animal which has been affected with sunstroke is very liable to 
have subsequent attacks when exposed to the necessary exciting causes. 

APOPLEXY — CEREBRAL HEMORRHAGE. 

Apoplexy is often confounded with cerebral congestion, but true 
apoplexy always consists in rupture of cerebral blood-vessels, with 
blood extravasation and formation of blood clot. 

Causes. — Two causes are involved in the production of apoplexy, the 
predisposing and the exciting cause. The predisposing cause is degen- 
eration or disease which weakens the blood-vessel, the exciting cause 
is any one which tends to induce cerebral congestion. 

{Symptoms. — Apoplexy is characterized by a sudden loss of sensation 
and motion, profound coma, and stertorous and difficult breathing. The 
action of the heart is little disturbed at first, but soon becomes slower, 
then quicker and feebler, and after a little time ceases. If the rupture 
is one of a small artery and the extravasation limited, sudden paraly- 
sis of some part of the body is the result. The extent and location of 
the paralysis depend upon the location within the brain which is 
functionally deranged by the pressure of the extravasated blood ; hence 
these conditions are very variable. 

In the absence of any premouitory symptoms or an increase of tem- 
perature in the early stage of the attack we may be reasonably certain 
in making the distinction between this disease and congestion of the 
brain or sunstroke. 

Pathology. — In apoplexy we are generally able to find an atheromatous 
condition of the cerebral vessels with weakening and degeneration of 
their walls. When a large artery has been ruptured it is usually fol- 
lowed by immediate death, and large rents may be found in the cere- 
brum, with great destruction of brain tissue, induced by the forcible 
pressure of the liberated blood. In small extravasations producing 



193 

local paralysis without marked general disturbance, the animal may 
recover after a time; in such cases gradual absorption of the clot takes 
place. In large clots atrophy of the brain substance may follow, or 
softeniug and abscess from want of nutrition may result, and render the 
animal worthless, ultimately resulting in death. 

Treatment. — Place the animal in a quiet, cool place, avoid all stimu- 
lating food. Administer, in his drinking water or feed, 2 drams of the 
iodide of potassa twice a day for several weeks if necessary. Medical 
interference with sedatives or stimulants is more apt to be harmful than 
of benefit, and blood-letting in an apoplectic fit is extremely hazardous. 
From the fact that cerebral apoplexy is due to diseased or weakened 
blood-vessels, the animal remains subject to subsequent attacks. 

COMPRESSION OF THE BRAIN. 

Causes. — In injuries from direct violence a piece of broken bone may 
press upon the brain, and according to its size the brain is robbed of 
its normal space within the cranium. It may also be due to an extrava- 
sation of blood or to exudation in the subdural or arachnoid spaces. 
Death from active cerebral congestion results through compression. 
The occurrence may sometimes be traced to the direct cause, which 
will give assurance for the correct diagnosis. 

Symptoms. — Impairment of all the special senses and localized paraly- 
sis. All the symptoms of lessened functional activity of the brain are 
manifested to some degree. The paralysis remains to be our guide for 
the location of the cause, for it will be found that the paralysis occurs 
on the opposite side. of the body from the location of the injury, and 
the parts suffering paralysis will denote, to an expert veterinarian or 
physician, the part of the brain which is suffering compression. 

Treatment. — Trephining, by a skillful operator, for the removal of 
the cause when due to depressed bone or the presence of foreign bodies. 
When the symptoms of compression follow other acute diseases of the 
brain, apoplectic fits, etc., the treatment must be such as the exigencies 
of the case demands. 

CONCUSSION OF THE BRAIN. 

Causes. — This is generally caused by an animal falling over back- 
ward and striking his poll, or perhaps falling forward on his nose ; by 
a blow on the head, etc. 

Symptoms. — Concussion of the brain is characterized by giddiness, 
stupor, insensibility, or loss of muscular power, succeeding immediately 
upon a blow or severe injury involving the cranium. The animal 
may rally quickly, or not for hours ; death may occur on the spot or 
after a few days. When there is only slight concussion or stunning 
the animal soon recovers from the shock. When more severe, insen- 
sibility may be complete and continue for a considerable time; the 
animal lies as if in a deep sleep; the pupils are insensible to light; 
the pulse fluttering or feeble ; the surface of the body cold, muscles 
11035 13 



194 

relaxed, and the breathing scarcely perceptible. After a variable in- 
terval partial recovery may take place, which is marked by paralysis 
of some parts of the body, often of a limb, the lips, ear, etc. Con- 
valescence is usually tedious, and frequently permanent impairment 
of some organs remains. 

Pathology. — Concussion produces laceration of the brain, or at least 
a jarring of the nervous elements, which if not sufficiently severe to 
produce sudden death may lead to softening or inflammation, with 
their respective symptoms of functional derangement. 

Treatment. — The first object in treatment will be to establish reac- 
tion or to arouse the feeble and weakening heart. This can often be 
accomplished by dashing cold water en the head and body of the 
animal; frequent injections of weak ammonia water, ginger tea, or 
oil and turpentine should be given per rectum. In the majority of 
cases this will soon bring the horse to a state of consciousness. In 
more severe cases mustard poultices should be applied along the 
spine and above the fetlocks. As soon as the auimal gains partial 
consciousness stimulants, in the form of whisky or capsicum tea, 
should be given. Owing to severity of the structural injury to the 
brain or the possible rupture of blood-vessels and blood extravasa- 
tion, the reaction may often be followed by encephalitis or cerebritis, 
and will then have to be treated accordingly. For this reason the 
stimulants should not be administered too freely, and they must be 
abandoned as soon as reaction is established. There is no need for 
further treatment unless complications develop as. a secondary result. 
Bleeding, which is so often practiced, proves almost invariably fatal in 
this form of brain affection. We should also remember that it is never 
safe to drench a horse with large quantities of medicine when he is un- 
conscious, for he is very liable to draw the medicine into the lungs in 
inspiration. 

Prevention. — Young horses, when harnessed or bitted for the first few 
times, should not have their heads checked up high, for it frequently 
causes them to rear up, and, being unable to control their balance, they 
are liable to fall over sideways or backwards, thus causing brain con- 
cussion when they strike the ground. 

ATOEMIA OF THE BRAIN. 

This is a physiological condition in sleep. 

Causes. — It is considered a disease or may give rise to disease when 
the circulation and blood supply of the brain are interfered with. In 
some diseases of the heart the brain becomes anaemic, and fainting fits 
occur, with temporary loss of consciousness. Tumors growing within 
the cranium may press upon one or more arteries and stop the supply 
of blood to certain parts of the brain, thus inducing anaemia, ultimately 
atrophy, softening, or suppuration. Probably the most frequent cause 
is found in plugging or occlusion of the arteries by a blood-clot. 



195 

Symptoms. — Imperfect vision, constantly dilated pupils, frequently a 
feeble and staggering gait, and occasionally cramps, convulsions, or 
epileptic fits occur. 

Pathology. — The exact opposite of cerebral hyperemia. The blood- 
vessels are found empty, the membranes blanched, and the brain sub 
stance softened. 

Treatment. — Removal of the remote cause when possible. General 
tonics, nutritious food, rest, and removal from all causes of nervous 
excitement. 

ATROPHY OF THE BRAIN. 

This condition is produced by a fault in nutrition, embracing the 
causes which induce ansemia. Gradual absorption and shrinking of 
brain substance may arise from the constant and increasing pressure 
arising from the growth of tumors, degeneration in the arterial walls, 
hydrocephalus, etc. Atrophy of the brain may be general or localized. 
The cerebrum may waste away in a remarkable degree before any indi- 
cation of disease becomes manifest. 

Symptoms. — It may give rise to viciousness, paralysis, disorders of 
special sensation, coma, etc. Treatment is of no avail. 

HYDROCEPHALUS — BRAIN DROPSY. 

This disease is most often seen in young foals and is manifested by 
an unnaturally large forehead. The forehead bulges out, and the cra- 
nial bones may be separated from their connections, and a part of the 
braiu be covered by the skin only. Foals seldom survive this affection, 
and treatment is useless. In horses hydrocephalus is a result of 
chronic meningitis, when an effusion of serum is poured out into the 
ventricles and arachnoid spaces of the brain. The disease is some- 
times indicated by a difficulty in controlling voluntary movements, 
coma, etc. When effusion as a result of meningitis is suspected, iodide 
of potassa in 2-drani doses may be given twice a day and a strong 
blister applied behind the ears. 

TUMORS WITHIN THE CRANIUM. 

Tumors withi n the cranial cavity and the brain occur not infrequently, 
and give rise to a variety of symptoms, imperfect control of voluntary 
movement, local paralysis, epilepsy, etc. 

Osseous tumors, growing from the walls of the cranium, are not very 
uncommon. 

Dentigerous cysts, containing a formation identical to that of a tooth, 
growing from the temporal bone, sometimes are found lying loose within 
the cranium. 

Tumors of the choroid plexus, known as brain sand, are frequently met 
with on postmortem examinations, but seldom give rise to any appreci- 



196 

able symptoms during life. They are found in horses at all ages, and 
are of slow development. They are found in one or both of the lateral 
ventricles, enveloped in the folds of the choroid plexus. 

Melanotic tumors have been found in the brain and meninges in the 
form of small, black nodules, in gray horses, and in one instance are 
believed to have induced the condition known as string-halt. 

Fibrous tumors may develop within or from the meningeal structures 
of the brain. 

Gliomatous tumor is a variety of sarcoma very rarely found in the 
structure of the cerebellum. 

Treatment for tumors of the brain is beyond our ambitiou in the pres- 
ent age. 

SPASMS — CRAMPS. 

Causes. — Spasm is a marked symptom in many diseases of the brain 
and of the spinal cord. Spasms may result from irritation of the motor 
nerves as conductors, or may result from irritation of any part of the 
sympathetic nervous system, and they usually indicate an excessive 
action of the reflex-motor centers. Spasms may be induced by various 
medicinal agents given in poisonous doses, or by effete materials in the 
circulation, such as mix vomica or its alkaloid strychnia, lead prepara- 
tions, or an excess of the urea products in the circulation, etc. Spasms 
may be divided into two classes: tonic spasm, when the cramp is con- 
tinuous or results in persistent rigidity, as in tetanus; clonic spasm, 
when the cramping is of short duration, or is alternated with relaxa- 
tions. Cramps may be distinguished from choleraic movements by the 
extreme pain or suffering which they induce. Spasms may affect invol- 
untary as well as the voluntary muscles, the muscles of the glottis, 
intestines, and even the heart. They are always sudden in their devel- 
opment. 

SPASM OF THE GLOTTIS. 

This is manifested by a strangling respiration; a wheezing noise is 
produced in the act of inspiration; extreme anxiety and suffering for 
want of air. The head is extended, the body profusely perspiring; 
pulse very rapid; soon great exhaustion becomes manifest; the mucous 
membranes become turgid and very dark-colored, and the animal thus 
may suffocate in a short time. 

SPASMS OF THE INTESTINES. 

(See '•Cramp-colic") 

SPASMS OF THE NECK OF THE BLADDER. 

This may be due to spinal irritation, or a reflex from intestinal irrita- 
tion, and is manifested by frequent but ineffectual attempts to urinate. 



197 

SPASM OF THE DIAPHRAGM — THUMPS. 

Spasmodic contraction of the diaphragm, the principal muscle used 
in respiration, is generally occasioned by extreme and prolonged speed- 
ing on the race-track or road. The severe strain thus put upon this 
muscle finally induces irritation of the nerves controlling it, aud the con- 
tractions become very forcible and violent, giving the jerking charac- 
ter known among horsemen as thumps. This condition may be distin- 
guished from violent beating of the heart by feeling the pulse beat at 
the angle of the jaw, and at the same time watching the jerking move- 
ment of the body, when it will be discovered that the two bear no rela- 
tion to each other. (See "Palpitation of the Heart.") 

SPASM OP THE THIGH, OR CRAMP OF A HIND LIMB. 

This is frequently witnessed in horses that stand on sloping plank 
floors — generally in cold weather — or it may come on soon after severe 
exercise. It is probably due to an irritation of the nerves of the thigh. 
In cramps of the hind leg the limb becomes perfectly rigid, aud at- 
tempts to flex the leg are unsuccessful ; the animal stands on the affected 
limb, but is unable to move it; it is unnaturally cold; it does not, how- 
ever, appear to cause much suffering unless attempts are made to 
change position. This cramp may be of short duration — a few minutes — 
or it may persist for several days. This condition is often taken for a dis- 
location of the stifle-joint. In the latter the foot is extended backward, 
and the horse is unable to advance it, but drags the limb after him. An 
examination of the joint also reveals a change in form. Spasms may 
affect the eye-lids, by closure or by retraction. Spasm of the sterno- 
maxillaris muscle has been witnessed, and the animal was unable to 
close the jaws until the muscle became relaxed. 

Treatment. — An anodyne liniment, composed of chloroform 1 part 
and soap liniment 4 parts, applied to cramped muscles will usually 
cause relaxation. This may be used where single external muscles are 
affected. In spasm of the glottis inhalation of sulphuric ether will 
give quick relief. In spasm of the diaphragm, rest aud the adminis- 
tration of half an ounce of chloroform in 3 ounces of whisky, with a 
pint of water added, will generally suffice to bring relief, or if this fails 
give 5 grains of sulphate of morphia by hypodermic injection. If 
spasms result from organic disease of the nervous system, the latte r 
should receive such treatment as its character demands. In cramp of 
the leg compulsory movement usually causes relaxation very quickly; 
therefore, the animal should be led out of the stable and be forced to run 
or trot. Sudden nervous excitement, caused by a crack of the whip or 
smart blow, will often bring about immediate relief. Should this fail, 
the anodyne liniment may be used along the inside of the thigh, and 
chloroform, ether, or laudanum given internally. An ounce of the 
chloral hydrate will certainly relieve the spasm when given internally, 



198 

but the cramp may return soon after the effect has passed off, which 
in many cases it does very quickly. 

Convulsions. — Although there is no disease of the nervous system 
which can be properly termed convulsive, or justify the use of the word 
convulsion to indicate any particular disease, yet it is often such a 
prominent symptom that a few words may not be out of place. Gen- 
eral, irregular muscular contractions of various parts of the body, with 
unconsciousness, characterize what we regard as convulsions, and like 
ordinary spasms are dependent upon some disease or irritation of the 
nervous structures, chiefly of the brain. No treatment is required; in 
fact, a general convulsion must necessarily be self-limited in its dura- 
tion. Suspending, as it does, respiratory movements, checking the 
oxygenation and decarbouization of the blood, the rapid accumulation 
of carbonic acid gas in the blood and the exclusion of oxygen quickly 
puts the blood in a condition to produce the most reliable and speedy 
sedative effect upon the nerve excitability that could be found, and 
consequently furnishes its own remedy, so far as the continuance of 
the convulsive paroxysm is concerned. Whatever treatment is insti- 
tuted must be directed towards a removal of the cause of the convulsive 
paroxysm. 

CHOTCEA. 

Chorea is characterized by involuntary contractions of voluntary 
muscles. This disease is an obscure disorder, which may be due to 
pressure upon a nerve, cerebral sclerosis, small aneurisms in the brain, 
etc. Choreic symptoms have been produced by injecting granules of 
starch into the arteries entering the brain. Epilepsy and other forms 
of convulsions simulate chorea in appearance. 

Stringhalt is by some termed chorea. This is manifested by a sudden 
jerking-up of one or both hind legs when the animal is walkiug. This 
symptom may be very slight in some horses, but has a tendency to in- 
crease with the age of the animal. In some the catching-up of the af- 
fected leg is very violent, and when it is lowered to the ground the 
motion is equally sudden and forcible, striking the foot to the ground 
like a pile-driver. Very rarely chorea may be found to affect oue of the 
fore legs, or the muscles of one side of the neck or the upper part of the 
neck. Involuntary jerking of the muscles of the hip or thigh is seen 
occasionally, and is termed shivering by horsemen. 

Chorea is often associated with a nervous disposition, and is not so 
frequent in animals with a sluggish temperament. The involuntary 
muscular contractions cause no pain, and do not appear to produce 
much exhaustion of the affected muscles, although the jerking may be 
regular and persistent whenever the animal is in motion. 

Treatment. — In a few cases, early in the appearance of this affection, 
general nerve tonics may be of benefit, viz, iodide of iron, 1 dram ; pul- 
verized nux vomica, 1 dram ; pulverized Scutellaria, 1 ounce. Mix, and 
give in the feed once a day for two weeks. If the cause is connected 
yrith organic brain k'sious treatment is usually unsuccessful. 



199 

EPILEPSY— FALLING FITS. 

The cause of epilepsy is seldom traceable to any special brain lesions. 
In a few cases it accompanies disease of the pituitary body, which is 
located in the under surface of the brain. Softening of the brain may 
give rise to this affection. Attacks may occur only once or twice a year, 
or they may be of frequent recurrence. 

Symptoms. — No premonitory symptoms precede an epileptic fit. The 
animal suddenly staggers ; the muscles become cramped ; the jaws may 
be spasmodically opened and closed, and the tongue become lacerated 
between the teeth ; he loams at the mouth and falls down in a spasm. 
The urine flows away involuntarily, and the breathing may be tempo- 
rarily arrested. The paroxysm soon passes off, and the animal gets on 
his feet in a few minutes after the return of consciousness. 

Treatment. — Dashing cold water on the head during the paroxysm. 
After the recovery 1 dram of oxide of zinc may be given in his feed 
twice a day for several weeks, or benefit may be derived from the tonic 
prescribed for chorea. 

COMA — SLEEPY STAGGERS. 

This condition, like that of spasm and convulsion, is generally not a 
disease, but merely a symptom manifested as a result of a variety of 
brain affections, such as atrophy, chronic meningitis with effusion, 
tumors in the lateral ventricles, etc. Another form of coma is that 
which accompanies acute diseases of the brain, wherein the animal may 
be unconscious, with sterterous breathing, difficult respiration, etc. We 
meet, however, with a type of coma in horses which can not easily be 
attributed to any special disease of the brain, unless it be a modified 
form of congestion, which is sometimes amenable to treatment. This 
condition is termed immobilite by the French, and sleepy staggers by 
our stablemen. It is usually attributed to habitual overloading of the 
stomach with bulky food and want of exercise. 

Symptoms. — Sleepy staggers is characterized by drowsiness, partial 
insensibility, sluggish and often staggering gait. The animal is in- 
clined to drop his head in the manger and to go to sleep with a wad of 
hay in his mouth, which he is apt to drop when he awakens. He will 
stand for a long time with his legs placed in any awkward position in 
which the owner may choose to put them. The bowels are constipated, 
the pulse slow and soft, with no fever or pain. The animal may remain 
in this condition for many months without much variation of symptoms, 
or he may become entirely comatose, with delirium or convulsions, and 
die. Chronic cases are always much better in cold weather than in the 
summer. 

Treatment. — Moderate bleeding from the jugular vein, 1 gallon from 
a medium-sized horse, and 1^ or 2 gallons from a very large, heavy 
horse. This should be immediately followed by a cathartic, composed 



200 

of aloes 6 drams, croton oil 6 drops, and 1 dram of cnpsicum, to be 
made iuto a ball with bard soap, molasses, or bread soaked in water, 
and given on an empty stomach. After the cathartic has ceased to 
operate give one large tablespoonfnl or half an ounce of the following 
mixture twice a day: Pulverized hydrastis, pulverized ginger, sodium 
bicarbonate, of each 4 ounces; mix. 

In some cases iodide of potassa in dram doses twice a day, alternated 
each week with 1 dram of calomel twice a day, will prove successful. 
In cases where there is a deep coma or almost continuous unconscious- 
ness, ice bags or cold-water cloths should be applied to the head — be- 
tween the ears, dropping well down over the forehead and extending 
backward from the ears for 4 or 5 inches. 

PARALYSIS — PALSY. 

Paralysis is a weakness or cessation of the muscular contraction, by 
diminution of loss of the conducting power or stimulation of the motor 
nerves. Paralytic affections are of two kinds, the perfect and the im- 
perfect. The former includes those in which both motion and sensi-. 
bility are affected ; the latter those in which only one or the other is 
lost or diminished. Paralysis may be general or partial, The latter is 
divided into hemiplegia and paraplegia. When only a small portion 
of the body is affected, as the face, a limb, the tail, it is designated by 
the term local paralysis. When the irritation extends from the pe- 
riphery to the center it is termed reflex paralysis. 

Causes. — They are very varied. Most of the acute affections of the 
brain and spinal cord may lead to paralysis. Injuries, tumors, disease 
of the blood-vessels of the brain, etc., all have a tendency to produce 
suspension of the conducting motive power to the muscular structures. 
Pressure upon, or the severing of, a nerve causes a paralysis of the 
parts to which such a nerve is distributed. Apoplexy may be termed 
a general paralysis, and in non-fatal attacks is a frequent cause of the 
various forms of palsy. 

GENERAL PARALYSIS. 

This can not take place without producing immediate death. The 
term is, however, usually applied to paralysis of the four extremities, 
whether any other portions of the body are involved or not. This form 
of palsy is due to compression of the brain by congestion of its vessels, 
large clot formation in apoplexy, concussion or shock, or any disease in 
which the whole brain structure is involved in functional disturbance. 

HEMIPLEGIA — PARALYSIS OF ONE SIDE OR HALF OF THE BODY. 

Hemiplegia is frequently the result of a tumor in the lateral ventricles 
of the braiu, softening of one hemisphere of the cerebrum, pressure 
from extravasated blood, fracture of the cranium, or it may be due to 



201 

poisons in the blood, or to reflex origin. When hemiplegia is due to or 
the result of a prior disease of the brain, especially of an inflammatory 
character, it is seldom complete; it may only affect one limb and one 
side of the head, neck, or muscles along the back, and may pass off in 
a few days after the disappearance of all the other evidences of the 
primary affection. In the majority of cases, however, hemiplegia arises 
from emboli obstructing one or more blood-vessels of the brain, or the 
rupture of some vessel the wall of which had become weakened by 
degeneration and the extravasation of blood. Sensibility in most cases 
is not impaired, but in some there is a loss of sensibility as well as of 
motion. In some cases the bladder and rectum are involved in the 
paralysis. 

Symptoms. — In hemiplegia the attack may be very sudden, and the 
animal fall down powerless to move one side of the body ; one side of 
the lips will be relaxed ; the tongue may hang out on one side of the 
mouth ; the tail curved around sideways ; an inability to swallow food 
or water may be present, and often the urine dribbles away as fast as it 
collects in the bladder. Sensibility of the affected side may be en- 
tirely lost or only partial ; the limbs may be cold, and sometimes un- 
naturally warm. In cases wherein the attack is not so severe the ani- 
mal may be able to maintain the standing position, but will have great 
difficulty in moving the affected side. In such cases the animal may 
recover from the disability. In the more severe, where there is com- 
plete loss of the power of movement, recoveries are rare. 

PARAPLEGIA — TRANSVERSE PARALYSIS OF THE HIND EXTREMITIES. 

Paralysis of the hind extremities is usually due to some injury, or 
inflammation affecting the spinal cord. (See "Spinal Meuingitis" and 
"Myelitis.") It may also be due to a reflex irritation from disease of 
peripheral nerves, to spinal irritation or congestion caused by blood 
poisons, etc. 

Symptoms. — When due to mechanical injury of the spinal cord, from 
a broken back or spinal hemorrhage, it is generally progressive in its char- 
acter, although it may be sudden. When it is caused by agents in the 
blood it may be intermittent or recurrent. 

Paraplegia is not difficult to lecoguize, for it is characterized by a 
weakness and imperfect control of the hind legs, and powerless tail. 
The urine usually dribbles away as it is formed and the manure is 
pushed out, ball by ball, without any voluntary effort, or the passages 
may cease entirely. When paraplegia is complete, large and ill-con- 
ditioned sores soon form on the hips and thighs from chafing and bruis- 
ing, which have a tendency to quickly weaken the animal and necessi- 
tate his destruction. 



202 

LOCOMOTOR ATAXIA — INCOORDINATION OF MOVEMENT. 

This is characterized by an inability to properly control the move- 
ment of the limbs. The animal appears usually perfectly healthy, but 
when he is led out of his stall his legs have a wobbly movement, and 
he will stumble or stagger, especially in turning. When this is con- 
fined to the hind parts it may be termed a modified form of paraplegia, 
but often it may be seen to affect nearly all the voluntary muscles when 
they are called into play, and must be attributed to some pressure ex- 
erted on the base of the brain. 

LOCAL PARALYSIS. 

This is frequently met with in horses. It may affect many parts of 
the body, even vital organs, and it is very frequently overlooked in 
diagnosis. 

FACIAL PARALYSIS. 

This is a frequent type of local paralysis, and is due to impairment 
of function of the motor nerve of the facial muscles, the portio dura. 
The cause may exist at the base of the brain, compression along its 
course after it leaves the medulla oblongata, or to a bruise after it 
spreads out on the great masseter muscle. 

Symptoms. — A flaccid condition of the cheek muscles, pendulous lips, 
inability to grasp the food, often a slow and weak movement in chew- 
ing, and difficulty and slowness in drinking. 

LARYNGISMUS PARALYTICUS —ROARING. 

This condition is characterized by roaring, and is usually caused by 
an inflamed or hypertrophied bronchial gland pressing against the left 
recurrent laryngeal nerve, which interferes with its conducting power. 
A similar condition is occasionally induced in acute pleurisy, where the 
recurrent nerve becomes involved in the diseased process or compressed 
by plastic exudation. 

PARALYSIS OF THE RECTUM AND TAIL. 

This is generally the result of a blow or fall on the rump, which 
causes a fracture of the sacrum bone and injury to the nerves supply- 
ing the tail and part of the rectum and muscles belonging thereto. 
This fracture would not be suspected, were it not for the loss of motion 
of the tail. 

INTESTINAL PARALYSIS. 

Characterized by persistent constipation ; frequently the strongest 
purgatives have no effect whatever on the movement of the bowels. 
In the absence of symptoms of indigestion, or special diseases impli- 
cating the intestinal canal, torpor of the bowels must be attributed to 



203 

deficient innervation. This condition may depend upon brain affec- 
tions, or be due to reflex paralysis. Sudden checks of perspiration 
may induce excessive action of the bowels or paralysis. 

PARALYSIS OF THE BLADDER. 

This usually affects the neck of the bladder, and is characterized by 
incontinence of urine — the urine dribbles away as fast as it is secreted. 

The cause may be of reflex origin, disease of the rectum, tumors grow- 
ing within the pelvic cavity, injury to the spinal cord, etc. 

PARALYSIS OF THE OPTIC NERVE — AMAUROSIS. 

A paralysis of eyesight may occur very suddenly from rupture of a 
blood vessel in the brain, acute local congestion of the brain, the admin- 
istration of excessive doses of belladonna or its alkaloid atropia, etc. 

Symptoms. — In amaurosis the pupil is dilated to its full extent, the 
eye looks clear, but does not respond to light. 

Paralysis of hearing, of the external ear, of the eyelid, partial paral- 
ysis of the heart and organs of respiration, of the blood vessels from 
injury to the vaso motor nerves of the oesophagus, or loss of deglutition, 
palsy of the stomach, all may be manifested when the supply of ner- 
vous influence is impaired or suspended. 

Treatment. — In all paralytic affections there may be anaesthesia or im- 
pairment of sensibility in addition to the loss of motion, or there may 
be hyperesthesia or increased sensibility in connection with the loss of 
motion. These conditions may call for special treatment in addition to 
that for loss of motion. Where hyperesthesia is well marked local 
anodynes may be needed to relieve suffering. Chloroform liniment or 
hypodermic injections of from 3 to 5 grains of sulphate of morphia will 
allay local pain. If there is marked anaesthesia or loss of sensibility it 
may become necessary to secure the animal in such a way that he can 
not suffer serious injury from accidents which he can not avoid or feel. 
In the treatment of any form of paralysis we must always refer to the 
cause, and attempt its removal if it can be discovered. In cases where 
the cause can not be determined we have to rely solely upon a general 
external and internal treatment. Externally, fly-blisters or strong irri- 
tant liniments may be applied to the paralyzed parts. In hemiplegia 
they should be applied along the bony part of the side of the neck; in 
paraplegia, across the loins. In some cases hot-water cloths will be 
beneficial. Internally, it is well to administer 1 dram of powdered nux 
vomica or 2 grains of sulphate of strychnia twice a day until twitch- 
ing of some of the voluntary muscles occur ; then discontinue it for sev- 
eral days, and then commence again with a smaller dose, gradually in 
creasing it until twitching recurs. In some cases Fowler's solution of 
arsenic in teaspoonful doses twice a day, in the drinking water, proves 
beneficial. Occasionally benefit may be derived from the application 



204 

of the electric current, especially in cases of roaring, facial paralysis, 
paralysis of the eyelid, etc. Nutritious but not too bulky food, good 
ventilation, clean stabling, moderate exercise if the animal is capable 
of taking it, good grooming, etc., should be observed in all cases. 

SPINAL MENINGITIS— INFLAMMATION OF THE MEMBRANES ENVELOP- 
ING THE SPINAL CORD. 

Causes. — This may be induced by tbe irritant properties of blood- 
poisous, exhaustion, and exposure, spinal concussion, all forms of injury 
to tne spine, tumors, caries of the vertebrae, rheumatism, etc. 

Symptoms. — A chill may be the precursor, a rise in temperature, or a 
general weakness and shifting of the legs. Soon a painful, convulsive 
twitching of the muscles sets in, followed by muscular rigidity along the 
spine, in which condition the animal will move very stiffly and evince 
great pain in turning. Evidences of paralysis or paraplegia develop, 
retention or incontinence of urine, and oftentimes sexual excitement is 
present. The presence of marked fever at the beginning of the attack, 
associated with spinal symptoms, should lead us to suspect spinal men- 
ingitis or myelitis. These two conditions usually appear together, or 
myelitis follows inflammation of the meninges so closely that it is almost 
impossible to separate the two ; practically it does not matter much, for 
the treatment will be about the same in both cases. Spinal meningitis 
generally becomes chronic, and is then marked principally by paralysis 
of that portion, or parts of it, posterior to the seat of the disease. 

Pathology. — In spinal meningitis we will find essentially the same con- 
dition as in cerebral meningitis; there will be an effusion of serum be- 
tween the membranes, and often a plastic exudation firmly adherent to 
the pia mater serves to maintain a state of paralysis for a long time 
after the acute symptoms have disappeared by compressing the cord. 
Finally, atrophy, softening, and even abscess may develop within the 
cord. Unlike in man, it is usually found localized in horses. 

Treatment. — Bags filled with ice should be applied along the spine, to 
be followed later on by strong blisters.. The fever should be controlled 
as early as possible by giving 20 drops of Norwood's tincture of vera- 
trum viride every hour, until the desired result is obtained. One dram 
of the fluid extract of belladonna, to control pain and vascular excite- 
ment of the spinal cord, may be given every five or six hours until the 
pupils of the eyes become pretty well dilated. If the paiu is very in- 
tense 5 grains of sulphate of morphia should be injected hypodermically. 
The animal must be kept as free from excitement as possible. If the 
urine is retained in the bladder it must be drawn off every four or six 
hours. In very acute attacks the disease generally proves fatal in a 
few days. If, however, the animal grows better some form of paraly- 
sis is apt to remain for a long time and the treatment will have to 
be directed then toward a removal of the exudative products and a 



205 

strengthening of the system and stimulation of the nervous functions. 
To iuduce absorption iodide of potassa in 2 dram doses may be given 
dissolved in the drinking water twice a day. To strengthen the sys- 
tem, iodide of iron 1 dram twice a day and 1 dram of nux vomica once 
a day may be given in the feed. Electricity to the paralyzed and 
weakened muscles is advisable; the current should be weak, but be 
continued for half au hour two or thtee times daily. If the disease is 
due to a broken back, caries of the vertebrae, or some other irremedi- 
able cause, the animal should be destroyed at once. 

MYELITIS — INFLAMMATION OF THE SUBSTANCE OF THE SPINAL CORD. 

This is a rare disease, except as a secondary result of spinal menin- 
gitis or injuries to the spine. Poisoning, by lead, arsenic, mercury, 
phosphorus, carbonic-acid gas, etc., has been known to produce it. 
Myelitis may be confined to a small spot in the cord or may involve the 
whole for a variable distance. It may lead to softening, abscess, or de- 
generation. 

Symptoms. — The attack may begin with a chill or convulsions; the 
muscles twitch or become cramped very early in the disease, and the 
bladder usually is affected in the. outset, in which there may be either 
retention or incontinence of urine. These conditions are followed by 
complete or partial paralysis of the muscles posterior to the locality of 
the inflamed cord, and the muscles begin to waste away rapidly. The 
paralyzed limb becomes cold and dry, due to the suspension of proper 
circulation; the joints may swell and become cedematous; vesicular 
eruptions appear on the skin, and frequently gangrenous sloughs form 
on the paralyzed parts. It is exceedingly seldom that recovery takes 
place. In a few instances it may assume a chronic type, when all the 
symptoms become mitigated, and thus continue for some time until 
septicaemia, pyaemia, or exhaustion causes death. 

Pathology. — The inflammation may involve nearly the whole length 
of the cord, but generally it is more intense in some places than others; 
when due to mechanical injury the inflammation may remain confined 
to a small section. The cord is swollen and congested, reddened, often 
softened and infiltrated with pus cells, and the nerve elements are de- 
generated. 

Treatment. — Similar to that of spinal meningitis. 

SPINAL SCLEROSIS. 

This is the sequence of myelitis, when some mild form of the disease 
has been existing. Thickening and hardening of the interstitial tissues 
of the cord, the result of inflammatory products, constitute sclerosis. 
The affected section has a gray appearance, is firmer than the surround- 
ing tissue, sometimes presents a depressed surface and at other times 
may be elevated above the general level of the cord. 



206 

Symptoms. — Paralysis of sensation or motion in local muscles, and 
when located in the region of the neck may present the symptoms of 
locomotor ataxia or inco-ordiuation of movement. Spinal sclerosis may 
be suspected when these symptoms succeed an attack of myelitis. 

Treatment. — The iodide of iron may be given in dram doses twice a 
day for a week, alternating with two-grain doses of sulphate of strych- 
nia twice a day for a week. 

SPINAL CONGESTION AND SPINAL HYPEREMIA. 

The distinction between congestion and hyperemia is one of degree 
rather than kind. lu both we find an excess of blood. In hypersemia 
the current is unusually rapid, in congestion it is unusually slow. The 
distinction between hypersemia and inflammation is also difficult to 
make; one is only the forerunner of the other. As the blood vessels of 
the pia mater are the principal source of supply to the spinal cord, hy- 
persemia of the cord aud of the meninges usually go together. The symp- 
toms are, therefore, closely allied to those of spinal meningitis and 
myelitis- When the pia mater is diseased the spinal cord is almost in- 
variably affected also. 

Cause. — Sudden checking of the perspiration, violent exercise, blows, 
and falls. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms may vary somewhat with each case, and 
closely resemble the first symptoms of spiual meningitis, spinal tumors, 
and myelitis. First, some disturbance in movement, lowering of the 
temperature, and partial loss of sensibility posterior to the seat of the 
congestion. If in the cervical region it may cause interference in 
breathing and the action of the heart. When in the region of the loins 
there may be loss of control of the bladder. When the congestion is 
sufficient to produce compression of the cord, paraplegia may be com- 
plete. Usually fever, spasms, muscular twitching, or muscular rigidity 
are absent, which will serve to distinguish spinal congestion from spinal 
meningitis. 

Treatment. — Hot- water applications to the spine, one-dram doses fluid 
extract of belladonna repeated every four hours, and tiuctureof aconite 
root 20 drops every hour until the symptoms become ameliorated. If 
no inflammatory products occur the animal is likely to recover. 

SPINAL ANAEMIA. 

This may be caused by extreme cold, exhausting diseases, spinal em- 
bolism or plugging of a spinal blood-vessel, an interference with the 
circulation through the abdominal aorta, from compression, thrombosis, 
or aneurism of that vessel ; the spinal vessels may be caused to contract 
through vaso-motor influence, a result of peripheral irritation of some 
nerve. 



207 

Symptoms. — Spinal anaemia causes paralysis of the mnscles used in 
extending the limbs. When the bladder is affected it precedes the weak- 
ness of motion, while in spinal congestion it follows, and increased sen- 
sibility, in place of diminished sensibility, as in spinal congestion, is ob- 
served. Pressure along the spine causes excessive pain. 

Treatment. — If the exciting cause can be removed the animal recov- 
ers ; if this fails, the spinal cord may undergo softening. 

SPINAL COMPRESSION. 

When caused by tumors or otherwise when pressure is slight, it pro- 
duces a paralysis of the muscles used in extending a limb and contrac- 
tion of those which flex it. When compression is great it causes com- 
plete loss of sensibility and motion posterior to the compressed part of 
the cord. 

Compression of a lateral half of the cord produces motor paralysis, 
disturbance in the circulation, and difficulty of movement, an increased 
sensibility on the side corresponding to the compressed section, and a 
diminished sensibility and some paralysis on the opposite side. 

Treatment. — When it occurs as a sequence of a preceding inflammatory 
disease, iodide of potassa and general tonics are indicated. When due 
to tumors growing within the spinal canal, or to pressure from dis- 
placed bone, no form of treatment will result in any benefit. 

SPINAL HEMORRHAGE. 

This may occur from changes in the wall of the blood-vessels, in con- 
nection with tumors, acute myelitis, traumatic injuries, etc. The blood 
may escape through the pia m ater into the sub-arachnoid cavity, and 
large clots be formed. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are largely dependent upon the seat and 
extent of the hemorrhage, as they are principally due to the compres- 
sion of the cord. A large clot may produce sudden paraplegia accom- 
panied by severe pain along the spine ; usually, however, the paralysis 
of both motion and sensation is not very marked at first; on the second 
or third day fever is apt to appear, and increased or diminished sensi- 
bility along the spine posterior to the seat of the clot. When the 
bladder and rectum are involved in the symptoms it indicates that the 
spinal cord is compressed. 

Treatment. — In the occurrence of injuries to the back of a horse, 
whenever there is any evidence of paralysis, it is always advisable to 
apply bags of ice along the spine to check or prevent hemorrhage or 
congestion, and 2 drams of the fluid extract of ergot and 20 drops of 
tincture of digitalis may be given every hour until three doses have 
been taken. Subsequently tincture of belladonna iu half-ounce doses 
may be given three times a day. If there is much pain, 5 grains of 
sulphate of morphia, injected under the skin, will afford relief and lessen 
the excitability of the animal. In all cases the animal should be kept 
perfectly quiet. 



208 

SPINAL CONCUSSION. 

This is rarely observed in the horse, and unless it is sufficiently se- 
vere to produce well-marked symptoms it would not be suspected. It 
may occur in saddle-horses from jumping, or it may be produced by 
falling over an embankment, or a violent fall upon the haunches may 
produce it. Concussion may be followed by partial paralysis or spinal 
hemorrhage, generally, however, it is confined to a jarring and some 
disturbance of the nerve elements of the cord, and the paralytic effect 
which ensues soon passes off. Treatment consists in rest until the ani- 
mal has completely recovered from the shock. If secondary effects fol- 
low from hemorrhage, or compression, they have to be treated as here- 
tofore directed. 

SPINAL TUMORS. 

Within the substance of the cord glioma, or the mixed gliosarcoraata, 
is found to be the most frequent, tumors may form from the meninges 
and the vertebrae, being of a fibrous or bony nature, and affect the spi- 
nal cord indirectly by compression. In the meninges we may find gli- 
oma, cancers, psammoma, fibromata ; and aneurisms of the spinal 
arteries have been discovered in the spinal canal. 

Symptoms. — Tumors of the spinal canal cause symptoms of spinal irri- 
tation, or compression of the cord. The gradual and slow development 
of symptoms of paralysis of one or both hind limbs or certain muscles 
may lead to a suspicion of spinal tumors. The paralysis induced is 
progressive, but not usually marked with atrophy of the muscles, or in- 
creased sensibility along the spine. When the tumor is within the spi- 
nal cord itself all the symptoms of myelitis may be present. 

Treatment — General tonics and dram doses of nux vomica may be 
given; iodide of iron or iodide of potassa in dram doses, three times a 
day in feed, may, in a very few cases, give some temporary benefit. 
Usually the disease progresses steadily until it proves fatal. 

NEURITIS— INFLAMMATION OF A NERVE. 

This is caused by a bruise or wound of a nerve, or to strangulation 
in a ligature when it is included in the ligation of an artery. The 
changes in an inflamed nerve are an enlargement, reddening of the 
nerve sheath, spots of extravasated blood, and sometimes an infiltration 
of serum mixed with pus. 

Symptoms. — Acute pain of the parts supplied by the nerve, and absence 
of swelling or increased heat of the part. 

Treatment. — Hypodermic injections of from 3 to 5 grains of morphia 
to relieve pain, hot fomentations, and rest. If it is due to an inclusion 
of a ligature, the nerve should be divided abope and below the ligature. 



209 

NEUROMA — TUMOR OF A NERVE. 

Neuroma may be from enlargement of the end of a divided nerve, or due 
to fibrous degeneration of a nerve which has been bruised or wounded. 
Its most frequent occurrence is found after the operation of neurotomy 
for foot lameness, and it may appear only after the lapse of months, 
or even years. Neuroma usually develop within the sheath of the nerve 
with or without implicating the nerve fibers. They are oval, running 
lengthwise with the direction of the nerve. 

Symptoms. — Pain of the affected limb or part is manifested, more es- 
pecially after resting awhile, and when pressure is made upon the 
tumor it causes extreme suffering. 

Treatment. — Excision of the tumor, including part of the nerve above 
and below, and then treat it like any other simple wound. 

INJURY TO NERVES. 

These may consist in wounding, bruising, laceration, stretching, com- 
pression, etc. The symptoms which are produced will depend upon 
the extent, seat, and character of the injury. Recovery may quickly 
take place, or it may lead to neuritis, neuroma, or spinal or cerebral irri- 
tation, which may result in tetanus, paralysis, and other serious de- 
rangements. In all diseases, whether produced by some form of ex- 
ternal violence or intrinsic causes, the nerves are necessarily involved, 
and sometimes it is to a primary iujury of them that the principal fault 
in movement or change of nutrition of a part is due. It is often diffi- 
cult or impossible to discover that an injury to a nerve has been in- 
flicted, but whenever this is possible it may enable us to remedy that 
which otherwise would result in permanent evil. Treatment should 
consist in relieving compression, in hot fomentations, the application 
of anodyne liniments, excision of the injured part, and rest. 

CEREBRO-SPINAL MENINGITIS. 

This may occur sporadically as an encephalitis, with implications of 
the spinal cord and its meninges. Usually, however, it appears as an 
enzooty in a stable, city, or farming district, not infrequently extend- 
ing long distances in certain well-defined lines, along rivers, valleys, 
or along ridges and mountains. For this reason the enzootic cerebro- 
spinal meningitis has been attributed by some veterinarians to atmos- 
pheric influences. The first written history we have of this disease was 
published about thirty years ago by Dr. Isaiah Michener, of Carners- 
ville, Pa., in a pamphlet entitled " Paralysis of the Par-Vagum." Sev- 
eral years later Prof. A. Large, of Brooklyn, 1ST. Y., gave it the name of 
" cerebro-spinal meningitis " on account of its similarity to that disease 
in the human family. Dr. J. C. Michener, of Colmar, Pa., in 1882, 
suggested the name of " Fungosus Toxicum Paralyticus," in view of 
(,he exciting cause being found in foods undergoing ferine ntatiou, Xu 
11035 14 



210 

England a similar disease has been called " grass staggers," due to 
eatiug rye grass when it is ripening or when it- is cut and eaten while 
it is heating and undergoing fermentation. In eastern Pennsylvania 
it was formerly known by the name of "putrid sore throat" and 
"choking distemper." A disease similar in many respects, which is 
very prevalent in Virginia, especially along the eastern border, is com- 
monly kuown by the name of " blind staggers," and in many of the 
southern States this has been attributed to the consumption of worm- 
eaten corn. Professor Large attributed the cause of the disease to a 
lack of sanitary conditions, poisonous gases, or emanations depending 
upon defective sewerage in cities, defective drainage ou lands in the 
country, and deficient stable ventilation. 

These reputed causes, however, are inadequate to account for so-called 
enzootic or epidemic cerebro-spinal meningitis. It frequently proves as 
fatal on the hills and table-lands of Hunterdon County, N. J., Bucks, 
Montgomery, Lehigh, and Northampton Counties, Pa., as it does in the 
dark, damp, illy ventilated stables in New York or Philadelphia. It 
attacks animals which have been running at pasture, where drainage 
has been perfect, as well as animals which have been stabled and kept 
on dry food, regardless of variation in any apjjreciable sanitary condi- 
tion. It affects horses of all ages and both sexes ; temperament or con- 
dition does not alter their susceptibility. Mules are attacked as well 
as horses, and the mortality is equally as great. There is, however, a 
variable severity of symptoms and degree of fatality in different out- 
breaks. 

That there is some specific cause which induces this disease is cer- 
tain, for it is neither contagious nor infectious. Personally, I believe 
the cause is connected with the food, either developed in it through 
some fermentative process or upon it in the form of one of the many 
parasitic fungi which grow on plants, grains, and vegetation. That 
these, when they are consumed at certain stages of their development, 
make a poisonous impression upon the brain and ultimately induce 
structural changes is shown, I think, by the history of the outbreaks 
wherever they can be traced. In many instauces the outbreak of the 
disease has been simultaneously witnessed where brewers' grains, oats, 
and hay have been fed, which could be traced from place to place, from 
one diseased center to another. That they were the carriers, if not 
the prime factors, can not be denied. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms which typify sporadic or epidemic cerebro- 
spinal meningitis in man are seldom witnessed in equal distinctness 
among horses, viz : excessive pain, high fever, and early muscular 
rigidity. In the recognition of the severity of the attack we may divide 
the symptoms into three grades. In the most rapidly fatal attacks, the 
animal may first indicate it by weak, staggering gate, partial or total 
inability to swallow solids or liquids, impairment of eyesight ; twitch- 
ing of the muscles, and slight cramps may be observed. This is soon 



211 

followed by a paralysis of the whole body, inability to stand, delirium in 
which the animal sometimes goes through a series of automatic move- 
ments as if trotting or running; the delirium may become very violent 
and the animal in his unconsciousness bruise his head in his struggles 
very seriously, but usually a deep coma renders him quiet until he expires. 
Death in these cases usually takes place in from four to twenty-four 
hours from the time the first symptoms became manifest, The pulse is 
variable during the progress of the disease ; it may be almost imper- 
ceptible at times, and then again very rapid and irregular ; the res- 
pirations generally are quick and catching. When attacked in this 
rapidly fatal form we may be able only to distinguish it from encepha- 
litis when other animals in the same stable or neighborhood are simi- 
larly affected. In the next form in which it may develop, it first be- 
comes manifest by a difficulty in swallowing and slowness in mastica- 
tion, and a weakness which may be first noticed in the strength of the 
tail ; the animal will be unable to switch it or to offer resistance when 
we bend it up over the croup. The pulse is often a little slower than 
normal. There is no evidence of pain ; the respirations are unchanged, 
and the temperature little less than normal ; the bowels may be some- 
what constipated. These symptoms may remain unchanged for two or 
three days and then gradual improvement take place, or the power to 
swallow may become entirely lost and the weakness and uncertainty 
in gait more and more perceptible ; then sleepiness or coma may ap- 
pear ; the pulse becomes depressed, slow and weak, the breathing ster- 
terous, and paroxysms of delirium develop, with inabilityto stand, and 
some rigidity of the spinal muscles or partial cramp of the neck and 
jaws. In such cases death may occur in from six to ten days from the 
commencement of the attack. In many cases there is no evidence of 
pain, spasm, or fever at any time during the progress of the disease, 
and finally profound coma develops and death follows, painless and 
without a struggle. 

Iu the last or mildest form, the inability of voluntary control of the 
limbs becomes but slightly marked, the power of swallowing never en- 
tirely lost, and the animal has no fever, pain, or unconscious movements. 
Generally the animal will begin to improve about the fourth day and 
recover. 

In a few cases the spinal symptoms, manifested by paraplegia, may 
be the most prominent symptoms ; in others they may be altogether ab- 
sent and the main symptoms be difficulty in mastication and swallow- 
ing; rarely it may affect one limb only. In all cases where coma re- 
maius absent for six or seven days the animal is likely to recover. 
When changes toward recovery take place, the symptoms usually leave 
in the reverse order in which they developed, but local paralysis may 
remain for some time, rarely persistent. 

One attack does not give immunity, for it may recur at some later 
time and prove fatal. Horses have been known to pass through three 
attacks, being affected for a week or longer each time. 



212 

Treatment.— In the worst class of cases treatment is very seldom 
successful, and it is dangerous to attempt the administration of medi- 
cine by the mouth, on account of the inability of the animal to swallow. 
Cold shower baths may possibly induce revulsive action iu connection 
with stimulants per rectum, 4 to 6 ounces of whisky in 2 pints of milk; 
the inhalation of ammonia vapor from a sponge saturated with dilute 
aqua ammonia may arouse consciousness. 

In the second class of cases the treatment recommended by Professor 
Large consists in giving a cathartic composed of 1 ounce of aloes and 
the administration of 1 to 2 drams of the solid extract of belladonna, 
alternated every three hours with 30 drops of tincture of aconite root, 
and the application of blisters to the neck, spine, and throat. When 
the animal is unable to swallow, oue-fourth-graiu doses of sulphate of 
atropia may be injected under the skin every four, six, or eight hours, 
as the case may demand. The atropia is a heart stimulant, increases 
capillary circulation, and quiets pain and excitability. This treatment 
has been followed by very gratifying results in the hands of Professor 
Large and others. When the most prominent symptoms abate give 
such food as they may be able to eat, keep fresh, cool water constantly 
before them, support them in slings if necessary ; clean stabling and 
plenty of fresh air are of the utmost importance. 

Pathology. — Post mortem examination reveals more or less congestion 
of the blood vessels at the base of the brain, effusion in the ventricles 
and in the subarachnoid space both in the cranial and the spinal cavi- 
ties. Plastic exudation is often found adherent to the pia mater of the 
brain, anterior part of the spinal cord, and in the region of the loins. 
The brain and cord appear softened in some cases where the greatest 
evidence of inflammatory action existed. 

Hygienic measures needful. — Whenever this disease appears in a stable 
all the animals should be removed as soon as possible. They should 
be provided with clean, well ventilated, and well-drained stables, and 
each animal should receive 1 dram of the extract or half an ounce of 
the tincture of belladonna twice a day for several days. The abandoned 
stable should be thoroughly cleansed from all waste matters, receive a 
coat of whitewash containing 4 ounces of carbolic acid to the gallon, 
and should have time to dry thoroughly before the horses are replaced* 
A complete change of food is of the very greatest importance, on ac- 
count of the belief that the cause resides in diseased grain, hay, and 
grass. 

TETANUS — LOOK-JAW. 

This disease is characterized by spasms affecting the muscles of the 
face, neck, body, and limbs, of all the muscles supplied by the cerebro- 
spinal nerves. The spasms or muscular contractions are rigid and per- 
sistent, yet mixed with occasional more interse contractions of convul- 
sive violence. 



213 

Causes. — The causes are classified under two heads, traumatic where 
it is the result of injury, aud idiopathic where it is due to other causes 
than injuries, such as cold and damp, excessive fright, uervous exhaust- 
ion from overwork, chronic irritation caused by worms in the intestiues, 
etc. In the majority of instauces the cause of tetanus can be traced 
to wounds, especially pricks or wounds of the feet or of tendinous 
structures. It sometimes follows castration, docking, the introduction 
of setous, inclusion of a nerve in a ligature, etc. It may come on a 
long time after the wound is healed, three or four months. In some 
countries where tetanus appears to be enzootic the presumption is that 
it is due to a specific germ. Horses with a nervous, excitable disposition 
are more predisposed than those of a more sluggish nature. Stallions 
are more subject to develop tetanus as the result of wounds than geld- 
ings, aud geldings more than mares. 

Symptoms. — The attacks may be acute or subacute. In an acute at- 
tack the animal usually dies within four days. The first symptoms 
which attract the attention of the owner is difficulty in chewing and 
swallowing, an extension of the head and protrusion over the inner 
part of the eye of the membrana nictitans or haw. An examination of 
the mouth will reveal an inability to open the jaws to their full extent, 
and the eudeavor to do so will produce great nervous excitability and 
increased spasm of the muscles of the jaw aud neck. The muscles of 
the neck and along the spine become rigid and the legs are moved in a 
stiff manner. The slightest noise or disturbance throws the auimal 
into increased spasm of all the affected muscles. The tail is usually 
elevated and held immovable; the bowels become constipated early in 
the attack. The temperature and pulse are not much changed. These 
symptoms in the acute type become rapidly aggravated until all the 
muscles are rigid — in a state of tonic spasm — with a continuous tremor 
running through them ; a cold perspiratiou breaks out on the body ; 
the breathing becomes painful from the spasm of the muscles used iu 
respiration ; the jaws are completely set, eye-balls retracted, lips drawn 
tightly over the teeth, nostrils dilated, aud the animal presents a pict- 
ure of the most extreme agony until death relieves him. The pulse, 
which at first was not much affected, will become quick and hard, or 
small and thready when the spasm affects the muscles of the heart. 
In the subacute cases the jaws may never become entirely locked ; the 
nervous excitability aud rigidity of muscles are not so great. There is, 
however, always some stiffness of the neck or spine manifest in turn- 
ing ; the haw is turned over the eye-ball when the uose is elevated. It 
is not uncommon for owners to continue such animals at their work for 
several days after the first symptoms have been observed. All the 
symptoms may gradually increase in severity for a period often days, 
and then gradually diminish under judicious treatment, or they may 
reach the stage wherein all the characters of acute tetanus become de- 
veloped. In some cases, however, we find the muscular cra.mp.-s almost 



214 

solely confined to the head or face, perhaps involving those of the neck. 
In such cases we have complete trismus — lock-jaw — and all the head 
symptoms are acutely developed. On the coutrary, we may find the 
head almost exempt in some cases, and have the body and limbs per- 
fectly rigid and incapable of movement without falling. 

Tetanus may possibly be coufouuded with spinal meningitis, but the 
character of the spasm-locked jaw, retraction of the eyeballs, the diffi- 
culty in swallowing due to spasms of the muscles of the pharynx, and, 
above all, the absence of paralysis, should serve to make the distinction. 

Treatment. — The animal should be placed in a box-stall without bed- 
ding, as far away as possible from other horses. If in a country district, 
the animal should be put into an outbuilding or shed, where the noise of 
other animals will not reach him ; if the place is moderately dark it is 
all the better; in fly time he should be covered with a light sheet. The 
attendant must be very careful and quiet about him, to prevent all un- 
necessary excitement and increase of spasm. 

A cathartic, composed of Barbadoes aloes, 6 to 8 drams, with which 
may be mixed 2 drams of the solid extract of belladonna, should be 
given at once. This is best given in a ball form ; if, however, the ani- 
mal is greatly excited by the attempt or can not swallow, the ball may 
be dissolved in 2 ounces of olive oil and thrown on the back of the 
tongue with a syringe. If the jaws are set, or nearly so, an attempt to 
administer medicine by the mouth should not be made. In such cases 
one quarter of a grain of atropia, with 5 grains of sulphate of morphia, 
should be dissolved in 1 dram of pure water and injected under the skin. 
This should be repeated sufficiently often to keep the auimal continually 
under its effect. This will usually mitigate the severity of the spasmodic 
contraction of the affected muscles and lessen sensibility to pain. Good 
results may be obtained sometimes by the injection per rectum of the 
fluid extract of belladonna and of cannabis indica, of each 1 dram, every 
four or six hours. This may be diluted with a quart of milk. When 
the animal is unable to swallow liquids, oat-meal gruel aud milk should 
be given by injection per rectum to sustain the strength of the animal. 
A pailful of cool water should be constantly before him, placed high 
enough for him to reach it without special effort; even if he can not 
drink, the laving of the mouth is refreshing. Excellent success fre- 
quently may be obtained by clothing the upper part of the head, the 
neck, and greater part of the body in woolen blankets kept saturated 
with very warm water. This treatment should be continued for six or 
eight hours at a time. It often relaxes the cramped muscles aud gives 
them rest and the animal almost entire freedom from pain ; but it 
should be used every day until the acute spasms have permanently 
subsided in order to be of any lasting benefit. 

If the cause is due to the iuclusiou of a nerve in a ligature, the divi 
sion of the nerve becomes necessary. When it is due to a wound all 
foreign substances should be searched for and be removed ; if from a 



215 

wound which has healed an excision of the cicatrix may be beneficial. 
In all cases it is not uncommon to have a partial recovery followed by 
relapse when the animal becomes excited from any cause. 

RABIES — HYDROPHOBIA — MADNESS. 

This disease does not arise spontaneously among horses, but is the re- 
sult of a bite from a rabid animal — generally a dog or cat. The devel- 
opment of the disease follows the bite in from three weeks to three 
months — very rarely in twelve or fourteen days. 

Symptoms. — The first manifestation of the development of this disease 
may be an increased excitability and viciousness; very slight noises or 
the approach of a person incites the animal to kick, strike, or bite at 
any object near him. Very often the horse will bite his own limbs or 
sides, lacerating the flesh and tearing the skin. The eyes appear star- 
ing, bloodshot ; the ears are on the alert to catch all sounds ; the head 
is held erect. In some cases the animal will continually rub and bite 
the locality of the wound inflicted by the rabid animal. This symptom 
may precede all others. Generally the bowels become constipated and 
he makes frequent attempts at urination, which is painful and the urine 
very dark colored. The furious symptoms appear in paroxysms; at 
other times the animal may eat and drink, although swallowing ap- 
pears to become painful towards the latter stage of the disease, and 
may cause renewed paroxysms. The muscles of the limbs or back may 
be subject to intermittent spasms, or spasmodic tremors ; finally the 
hind limbs become paralyzed, breathing very difficult, and convulsions 
supervene, followed by death. The pulse and respirations are increased 
in frequency from the outset of the attack. Eabies may possibly be 
mistaken for tetanus. In the latter disease we fiud tonic spasms of the 
muscles of the jaws, or stiffness of the neck or back very early in the 
attack, and evidence of viciousness is absent. 

Treatment — As soon as the true nature of the disease is ascertained 
the animal should be killed. 

Prevention. — When a horse is known to have been bitten by a rabid 
animal immediate cauterization of the wound with a red-hot iron may 
possibly destroy the virus before absorption of it takes place. 

PLUMBISM — LEAD-POISONING. 

This disease is not of frequent occurrence. It may be due to habitu- 
ally drinking water which has been standing in leaden conductors or 
in old paint barrels, etc. It has beeu met with in enzootic form near 
smelting works, where, by the fumes arising from such works, lead in 
the form of oxide, carbonate, or sulphate was deposited on the grass 
and herbage which the horses ate. 

Symptoms. — Lead poisoning produces derangement of the functions 
of digestion and locomotion, or it may affect the lungs principally. In 



216 

whatever system of organs the lead is deposited mostly there will we 
have the symptoms of nervous debility most manifest. If iu the lungs 
the breathing becomes difficult aud the animal gets out of breath very 
quickly when he is compelled to run. Roaring also is very frequently 
a symptom of lead-poisoning. When it affects the stomach the animal 
gradually falls away in flesh, tbe hair becomes rough, the skin tight, 
and colicky symptoms develop. When the deposit is principally iu the 
muscles partial or complete paralysis gradually develops. When large 
quantities of lead have been taken in and absorbed, symptoms resem- 
bling epilepsy may result, or coma aud delirium develop aud prove 
fatal. In lead-poisoning there is seldom any increase in temperature. 
A blue line forms along the gums of the front teeth, and the breath 
assumes a peculiar offensive odor. Lead can always be detected in the 
urine by chemical tests. 

Treatment. — The administration of 2-dram doses of iodide of potassa, 
three times a day. This will form iodide of lead in the system, which 
is rapidly excreted by the kidneys. If much muscular weakness or 
paralysis is present, sulphate of iron in dram doses, and strychnia in 2- 
grain doses may be given twice a day. In all cases of suspected lead- 
poisoning all utensils which have entered into the supply of feed or 
water shoul d be examined for the presence of soluble lead. If it occurs 
near lead works great care must be given to the supply of uncoutam- 
inated fodder, etc. 

UEJEMIA. 

Urcemic poisoning may affect the brain in nephritis, acute albuminu- 
ria, or when, from any cause, the functions of tbe kidneys become im 
paired or suppressed aud urea (a natural product) is no longer elimi 
nated from these organs, causing it to accumulate in the system and give 
rise to ursemic poisoning. 

Symptoms. — Ursemic poisoning is usually preceded by dropsy of the 
limbs or abdomen ; a peculiar fetid breath is often noticed ; then drow- 
siness, attacks of diarrhea, and general debility ensue. Suddenly ex- 
treme stupor or coma develops ; the surface of the body becomes cold ; 
the pupils are insensible to light ; the pulse slow and iutermittiug ; the 
breathing labored, aud death supervenes. The temperature through- 
out tbe disease is seldom increased, unless the disease becomes compli- 
cated with acute inflammatory disease of the brain or respiratory 
organs, which often occur as a result of the urea in the circulation. 
Albumen and tube casts may frequently be found in the urine. The 
disease almost invariably proves fatal. 

Treatment. — This must be directed to a removal of the cause. (See 
''Diseases of the Kidney.") 

ELECTRIC SHOCK. 

Electric shock, from coming in contact with electric wires, is becom- 
ing a matter of rather frequent occurrence, and has a similar effect upon 



217 

the animal system to a shock from lightning. Two degrees of electric 
or lightuing shock may be observed, one producing temporary contrac- 
tion of muscles and insensibility, from which recovery is possible, the 
other killing directly, by producing a condition of nervous and general 
insensibility. In shocks which are not immediately fatal the animal is 
usually insensible, the respiration slow, labored or gasping, the pulse 
slow, feeble, and irregular, and the pupils dilated and not sensitive, or 
they may be coutracted and sensitive. The temperature is lowered. 
There may be a tendency to convulsions or spasms. The predominat- 
ing symptoms are extreme cardiac and respiratory depression. 

Treatment. — Sulphate of atropia should be given hypodermically in 
one quarter grain doses every hour or two hours until the heart beats 
are invigorated, the number and fullness of the respirations increased, 
and consciousness returns. Stimulating injections per rectum may also 
be useful in arousing the circulation} for this purpose whisky or am- 
monia water may be used. 




-VJ SV tvj <p V5 ^- |s^ qq- 



DISEASES OF THE HEART AND BLOODVESSELS. 



By M. R. TRUMBOWER, V. S , Sterling, 111. 



REMARKS ON THE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HEART AND 

BLOODVESSELS. 

The heart is a hollow, involuntary, muscular organ, situated as nearly 
as possible in the center of the chest, though its impulse is felt on the 
left side from the rotary movement of the organ in action. It is cone- 
shaped, with the base upwards; the apex points downwards, backwards, 
and to the left side. It extends from about the third to the sixth ribs 
inclusive. The average weight is about 6£ pounds. In horses used for 
speed the heart is relatively larger, according to the weight of the aui- 
mal, than in horses used for slow work. It is suspended from the spine 
by the large blood-vessels, and held in position below by the attach- 
ment of the pericardium to the sternum. It is inclosed iu a sac, the 
pericardium, which is composed of a dense, fibrous, membrane, lined by 
a delicate serous membrane, which is reflected over the heart ; the inner 
layer is firmly adherent to the heart, the outer to the fibrous sac, and 
there is an intervening space known as the pericardial space, in which 
a small amount of serum — a thin translucent liquid — is present con- 
stantly. 

The heart is divided by a shallow fissure into a right and left side ; 
each of these is again subdivided by a transverse partition into two 
compartments, which communicate. Thus there are four cardiac cavi- 
ties, the superior or upper ones called the auricles, the inferior or 
lower ones the ventricles. These divisions are marked on the outside 
by grooves, which contain the cardiac blood-vessels, and are generally 
filled with fat. 

The right side of the heart may be called the venous, the left the ar- 
terial side, named from the kind of blood which passes through them. 
The auricles are thin- walled cavities placed at the base, and are con- 
nected with the great veins, the vena cavse and pulmonary veins, through 
which they receive blood from all parts of the body. The auricles com- 
municate with the ventricles each by a large aperture, the auriculo- 
ventricular orifice, which is furnished with a remarkable mechanism of 

219 



220 

valves, allowing the transmission of blood from the auricles into the 
ventricles, but preventing- a reverse course. The ventricles are thick- 
walled cavities, forming the more massive portion of the heart towards 
the apex. They are separated by a partition, and are connected with 
the great arteries, the pulmonary artery and the aorta, by which they 
send biood to all parts of the body. At the mouth of the aorta and at 
the mouth of the pulmonary artery is an arrangement of valves in each 
case which prevents the reflux of blood into the ventricles. The auri- 
culo-ventricular valves in the left side are composed of two flaps, hence 
it is called the bicuspid valve. In the right side this valve has three 
flaps, and is called the tricuspid valve. The flaps which form these 
valves are connected with a tendinous ring between the auricles and 
ventricles ; and each flap of the auriculo -ventricular valves is supplied 
with tendiuous cords, which are attached to the free margin and under 
surface, so as to keep the valves tense when closed; a condition which 
is produced by the shortening of muscular pillars with which the 
cords are connected. The arterial openings, both on the right and 
on the left side, are provided with three-flapped semi-lunar shaped 
valves, to prevent the regurgitation of blood when the ventricles con- 
tract. The veins emptying into the auricles are not capable of closure, 
but the posterior vena cava has an imperfect valve at its aperture. 

The inner surface of the heart is lined by a sarous membrane, the 
endocardium, which is smooth and firmly adherent to the muscular 
structure of the heart. This membrane is continuous with the lining 
membrane of the blood vessels, and it enters into the formation of the 
valves. 

The circulation through the heart is as follows: The venous blood is 
carried into the right auricle by the anterior and posterior venae cavae. 
It then passes through the right auriculo ventricular openiug into tbe 
right ventricle, thence through the pulmonary artery to the lungs. It 
returns by the pulmonary veins to the left auricle, then is forced through 
the auriculo -ventricular opening into the left ventricle, which propels it 
through the aorta and its branches into the system, the veins returning 
it again to the heart. The circulation, therefore, is double, the pulmon- 
ary or lesser being performed by the right, and the systemic or greater 
by the left side. 

As the blood is forced through the heart by forcible contractions of 
its muscular walls it has the action of a force pump, and gives the im- 
pulse at each beat, which we call the pulse — the dilatation of the arteries 
throughout the system. The contraction of the auricles is quickly fol- 
lowed by that of the ventricles, and then a slight pause occurs; this 
takes place in regular rythmical order during health. 

The action of the heart is governed and maintained by the pueumo-gas- 
tric nerve (tenth pair of crauial nerves) ; it is the inhibitory nerve of the 
heart, and regulates, slows, and governs its action. When tbe nerve is 
cut the heart-beats increase rapidly, and in fact the organ works without 



221 

control. When the nerve is unduly irritated the hold-back or inhibitory- 
force is increased, aud the heart slows up in the same measure. The 
left cavities of the heart, the pulmonary veins, and the aorta or systemic 
artery, contain red or florid blood, fit to circulate through the body. 
The right cavities of the heart, with the venae cavae or systemic veins 
and pulmonary artery, contain dark blood, which must be transmitted 
through the lungs for renovation. 

The arteries, commencing in two great trunks, the aorta and the pul. 
monary artery, undergo division as in the branching of a tree. Their 
branches mostly come off at acute angles, and are commonly of uni- 
form diameter in each case, but successively diminish after aud incon- 
sequence of division, and in this manner gradually merge into the 
capillary system of blood vessels. As a general rule, the combined area 
of the branches is greater than that of the vessels from which they 
emanate, aud hence the collective capacity of the arterial system is 
greatest at the capillary vessels. The same rule applies to the veins. 
The effect of the division of the arteries is to make the blood move more 
slowly along their branches to the capillary vessels, and the effect of 
the union of the branches of the veins is to accelerate the speed of the 
blood as it returns from the capillary vessels to the venous trunks. 

In the smaller vessels a frequent running together or anastomosis oc- 
curs. This admits of a free communication between the currents of 
blood, and must tend to promote equability of distribution and of press- 
ure, and to obviate the effects of local interruption. The arteries are 
highly elastic, being extensile and retractile both in length and breadth. 
During life they are also contractile, being provided with muscular tis- 
sue. When cut across they present, although empty, an open orifice; 
the veins, on the other baud, collapse. 

In most parts of the body the arteries are inclosed in a sheath formed 
of connective tissue, but are connected so loosely that when the vessel 
is cut across its ends readily retract some distance within the sheath. 
Independently of this sheath arteries are usually described as being 
formed of three coats, named, from their relative positions, external, 
middle, aud internal. This applies to their structure so far as it is 
discernable by the naked eye. The internal, serous or tunica intima 
is the thinnest, aud coutinuous with the lining membrane of the heart. 
It is made up of two layers, an inner, consisting of a layer of epithelial 
scales, and an outer, transparent, whitish, highly elastic, and perforated. 
The middle coat, tunica media, is elastic, dense, and of a yellow color, 
consisting of non-striated muscular and elastic fibers, thickest in the 
largest arteries and becoming thinner in the smaller. In the smallest 
vessels it is almost entirely m uscular. The external coat, tunica ad- 
ventitial is composed mainly of fine and closely- woven bundles of white 
connective tissue, which chiefly run diagonally or obliquely round the 
vessel. In this coat the nutrient vessels, the vasa vasorum, form a cap- 
illary net- work, from which a few penetrate as far as the muscular coat, 



222 

The veins differ from arteries in possessing thinner walls, less clastic 
and muscular tissue, aud for the most part a stronger tunica adventitia. 
They collapse when cut across or when they are empty. The majority 
of veins are provided with valves ; these are folds of the lining mem- 
brane, strengthened by fibrous tissue. They favor the course of the 
blood and prevent its Teflux. The nerves which supply both the ar- 
teries and the veins come from the sympathetic system. The smaller 
arteries terminate in the system of minute vessels, known as the cap- 
illaries, which are interposed between the termination of the arteries 
and the commencement of the veius. Their average diameter is about 
one three-thousandth of an inch. 

SOUNDS OF THE HEART. 

By placing the ear behind the elbow against the left side of the chest 
two distinct sounds can be heard at each heart-beat in health. The first 
is rather muffled and prolonged, the second is short and sudden. The 
first is caused by the contraction of the ventricles, the closing of the 
auriculoventricular valves, and the forcible propulsion of the blood into 
the arteries; the second follows immediately, aud is due to the reflux 
of the blood just forced into the arteries, and the sudden closure of the 
valves which prevent its return to the heart. In disease of the heart 
or valves these sounds are generally modified, or supplanted by others, 
which vary so much in character aud are so difficult to describe that we 
cau not consider them here ; long aud extensive experience is required 
to distinguish them practically. 

CHARACTERS OF THE PULSE. 

The circulation of the blood through the heart is constant, and is 
maintained by the propelling activity of this organ. In the horse the 
heart beats from thirty-six to forty-six times a minute, varying with the 
disposition, breed, and temperament of the animal. In the foal the 
pulse is about three times as rapid as iu the adult, from six months to 
a year about twice as quick, and in the two-year-old about one-quarter 
faster. The pulse is usually taken at the angle of the jaw, where the 
artery crosses the bone, aud its force or character is often indicative of 
the nature of the disease from which an animal may be suffering. The 
pulse, therefore, is named iu accordance with its character as slow, soft, 
small, full, weak, quick, hard, irregular, intermittent, venous, etc. 

Sloiv pulse is one where the number of beats are less than normal, and 
is often found in certain diseases of the brain. 

Soft or compressible pulse is one where the beat is rather weak, but not 
abnormally rapid. It is often found in debility due to want of assimi- 
lation or proper nourishment. When accompanied with fever or loss 
of appetite it is usually indicative of derangement of the digestive 
organs. 



223 

Small pulse is one where the sensation conveyed to the finger is one of 
lessened diameter of the artery ; it may be normal in frequency or 
slightly increased. Generally due to exhaustion from work or disease. 

Full or strong pulse is one which imparts a bounding sensation as if 
from over distention of the artery at each heart beat. It is usually 
increased in frequency. This character may be felt immediately suc- 
ceeding fast work, or in very plethoric horses when slightly excited. 
Often it may indicate a general systemic disturbance or disease of the 
lungs. 

Weak or feeble pulse is one which is hardly perceptible. This may 
indicate organic disease of the heart, or denote general weakness from 
loss of blood, prolonged sickness, starvation, etc. 

Quick or frequent pulse is one where the heart-beats are more rapid 
than normal, without any special change in its character. It is found 
in the early stage of nearty all inflammatory diseases. 

Hard or wiry pulse is one'which is tense, incompressible, or vibrating, 
and is always increased in frequency. It usually denotes acute disease 
of serous membranes, such as pleuritis, peritonitis, meningitis, etc. 

Irregular pulse is one in which several pulsations follow in quick suc- 
cession and then a pause ensues. This may indicate disease of the 
heart, or of the nervous system, sometimes observed in lingering, ex- 
hausting diseases. 

Intermittent pulse is one where a beat is lost at regular intervals. 
This is almost invariably an indication of disease of the heart. 

Venous pulse may be seen along the side of the neck in the jugular 
furrow, and has the appearance of blood regurgitating in the vein at 
each beat of the heart. It usually denotes disease of the heart, or an 
obstruction to the flow of blood within the chest, from the pressure of a 
tumor, dropsy, etc. 

DISEASES OF THE HEART AND BLOOD-VESSELS. 

In considering diseases of the heart we meet with many difficulties, 
depending much upon the position which this organ occupies in the 
animal. The shoulders cover so much of the anterior portion of the 
chest, and often in very heavy muscled horses the chest walls are so 
thick, that a satisfactory examination of the heart cannot be made. 
Diseases of the heart are not uncommon among horses; the heartand its 
membranes are frequently involved in diseases of the respiratory organs, 
diseases of the kidneys, rheumatism, influenza, etc. Some of the dis- 
eases of this organ are never suspected by the ordinary observer 
during life, and are so difficult to diagnose with any degree of certainty 
that we will have to confine ourselves to a general outline, giving at- 
tention to such symptoms as may serve to lead to a knowledge of their 
existence, with directions for treatment, care, etc. 

Nervous affections often produce prominent heart symptoms by caus- 
ing functional disturbance of that organ, which, if removed, will leave 



224 

the heart restored to perfect vigor ami normal action. Organic changes 
involving the heart or valves, however, usually grow worse and event- 
ually prove fatal. Therefore it is necessary that we arrive at an appre- 
ciation of the true nature and causes, so that we may be able to form a 
true estimate of the possibilities for recovery or encouragement for 
medical treatment. 

Disease of the heart may occur at any age, but it is witnessed most 
frequently in young horses, which, when being trained for fast work, 
are often subjected to excessive hardship and fatigue. Nervous or timid 
animals also suffer from such diseases more frequently than those of a 
sluggish disposition. Any cause which induces a violent or sudden 
change in the circulation may result in injury to the heart. Symptoms 
which may frequently denote disease of the heart are difficult breath- 
ing or short-windedness, dropsies of the limbs, habitual coldness of the 
extremities, giddiness or fainting attacks, inability to stand work al- 
though the general appearance would indicate strength and ability, etc. 

INFLAMMATORY DISEASES OF THE HEART. 

This will embrace myocarditis, endocarditis, and pericarditis. 

MYOCARDITIS — INFLAMMATION OF THE MUSCULAR STRUCTURE OF THE HEART. 

This is of rare occurrence without implication of the endocardium or 
pericardium. That inflammation of the muscular wallsof the heart may 
frequently exist to some slight degree, induced by excessive action, can 
not be doubted. Post-mortem examinations occasionally reveal abscess 
and degeneration within the walls of this organ, which were not sus- 
pected during life. Myocarditis primarily involves the interstitial mus- 
cular tissue and the blood vessels, and presents itself in a sub-acute or 
chronic type, which often leads to induration or hypertrophy, occasion- 
ally to the formation of pus and abscess. It may also lead to a dilata- 
tion of the heart and rupture. 

Causes. — Over-exertion or heart strain, influenza, rheumatism, pye- 
mia, extension of endocarditis or pericarditis, etc. Myocarditis usually 
involves the endocardial membrane very early in the attack, and devel- 
ops all the symptoms of endocarditis. Hence we will consider, as most 
distinctive of inflammation of the heart, endocarditis. 

ENDOCARDITIS — INFLAMMATION OF THE LINING MEMBRANE OF THE HEART, USUALLY 
INVOLVING THE MUSCULAR STRUCTURE. 

It is frequently found in general rheumatism, involving the serous 
membrane, some of the specific or zymotic fevers, septic poisoning, etc. 
Endocarditis is a much more frequent disease among horses than we 
are generally aware, and often gives rise to symptoms which, at first, 
are obscure and unnoticed. I have witnessed two enzootics of influenza 
in which 20 per cent, of the animals attacked developed i-ymptoms of 



225 

either endocarditis or pericarditis. A certain number of these cases 
subsequently developed the condition known as heaves, or gradually 
failed in strength, with recurrence of attacks of heart failure upon the 
slightest exertion, rendering many of them valueless. In the rheumatic 
type of influenza we may often find the heart becoming involved in the 
disease, in consequence of the morbid material conveyed through the 
heart in the blood-stream. In view of the fact that many affections, in 
even remote portions of the body, may be traced directly to a primary 
endocardial disease, we shall feel justified in inviting special attention 
to this disease. 

Endocarditis may be acute or assume various degrees of severity. 
In acute inflammation we find a thickening and a roughened appear- 
ance of the endocardium throughout the cavities of the heart. This 
condition is soon followed by a coagulation of fibrine upon the inflamed 
surface, which adheres to it, and by attrition soon becomes worked up 
into shreddy-like granular elevations ; this may lead to the formation 
of fibrinous clots in the heart and sudden death early in the disease, 
the second or third day. This acute type of the disease, however, does 
not always affect the whole interior of the heart, but is often confined 
to one ventricle or may be in patches ; it may extend through the ventri- 
cle into the aorta or the pulmonary vein ; it may affect the valves prin- 
cipally, which are composed of but little else than the endocardium 
folded upon itself. 

In acute endocarditis we invariably will find myocarditis develop 
corresponding to the same space, which in intensity may produce seri- 
ous results through the destruction of functional ability or lead to 
weakness, abscess, or rupture. Immediately upon the swelling of this 
membrane we will find an abnormal action and abnormal sounds of the 
heart. 

Subacute endocarditis, which is the most common form we meet, 
may not become appreciable for several days after its commencement. 
It is characterized by being confined to one or more anatomical divisions 
of the heart, and all the successive morbid changes follow each other 
in a comparatively slow process. Often we would not be led to suspect 
heart affection were it not for the distress in breathing, which it gen- 
erally occasions when the animal is exercised, especially if the valves are 
much involved. When the disease extends into the arteries, atherom- 
atous deposits usually develop; when the inflammation is severe at the 
origin of the tendinous cords they may become softened and ruptured. 
When much fibrinous coagula or cellular vegetations form upon the 
inflamed membrane, either in minute shreds or patches, or when forma- 
tion of fibrinous clots occurs in the cavity affected, some of these mate- 
rials may be carried from the cavity of the heart by the blood-current 
into remote organs, constituting emboli that are liable to suddenly plug 
vessels and thereby interrupt important functions. In the great major- 
ity of either acute or subacute grades of endocarditis, whatever the 
11035 15 



226 

exciting cause, the most alarming symptoms disappear in a week or ten 
days, often leaving, however, such changes in the interior lining or 
valvular structures as to cause impairment in the circulation for a much 
longer period of time. These changes usually consist of thickening or 
induration of the inflamed structures. But while the effects of the 
inflammation in the membrane lining the walls of the ventricles may 
subside to such a degree as to cause little or no inconvenience, or even 
wholly disappear, yet after the valvular structures have been involved, 
causing them to be thicker, less flexible than normal, they usually 
remain, obstructing the free passage of the blood through the openings 
of the heart, thereby inducing secondary changes which take place 
slowly at first, but ultimately seriously impair the animal's usefulness. 
What was but a slight obstruction to the circulation during the first 
few weeks after the subsidence of the cardiac inflammatory attack 
becomes in process of time so much increased as to induce increased 
growth in the muscular structure of the heart, constituting hypertrophy 
of the walls of the ventricles, more particularly of the left, with corre- 
sponding fullness of the left auricle and pulmonary veins, thereby pro- 
ducing fullness of the capillaries in the lungs, pressure upon the air 
cells, difficult or asthmatic breathing — greatly increased in attempts to 
work — until in a few months many of these cases become entirely dis- 
abled for work. Sometimes, too, dropsical effusions in the limbs or into 
the cavities of the body result from the irregular and deficient circula- 
tion. Derangement of the urinary secretion, with passive congestion of 
the kidneys, may also appear. 

Endocardial inflammation is seldom fatal in its early stages, but in 
many cases the recovery is incomplete, for a large proportion are left 
with some permanent thickening of the valves, which constitute the be- 
ginning of valvular disease. 

Symptoms. — As already stated, myocarditis is seldom recognized until 
pericarditis or endocarditis supervenes. Staggering gait with painful 
movement of the fore-limbs, a constant irregularity of the heart's action, 
but equality of strength regardless of the rapidity of the heait-beats, 
constitute perhaps the most prominent symptoms which characterize 
myocarditis. When the disease is associated with rheumatism, influ- 
enza, or other zymotic diseases, these symptoms may not be sufficiently 
well defined to attract the attention they deserve, and medical treat- 
ment prescribed for the mitigation of such disease often serves to ag- 
gravate the cardiac affection. In chronic myocarditis we generally 
find a persistent palpitation with irregularity of beat, whicb, upon ex- 
ercise, becomes greatly intensified. Change in the sounds of the heart 
do not occur unless pericarditis, endocarditis, or disease of the valves 
are associated with myocarditis. When it leads to hypertrophy we may 
find an abnormally increased area of dullness on percussion. In endo- 
carditis, when the attack is sudden and severe, we may find many of the 
symptoms which characterize pericarditis and pleuritis, but a close ex- 
amination will reveal notable differences. 



227 

Endocarditis may be ushered in by a chill, with sudden and marked 
rise in temperature. The pulse rapidly decreases in strength or may 
become irregular, while the heart beats more or less tumultuously. In 
the early stages soft blowing sounds may be heard by placing the ear 
over the heart on the left side, which correspond in number and rhythm 
to the heart's action. Excessive pain, though not so great as in acute 
pleuritis, is manifested when the animal is compelled to trot; very often 
difficulty in breathing — shortness of breath — on the slightest exertion 
develops early in the attack. When the valves are involved in the in- 
flammatory process the visible mucous membranes become either very 
pale or very dark colored, and fainting may occur when the head is 
suddenly elevated. When the valves of the right side are affected we 
may have a regurgitant pulsation in the jugular vein. In some cases 
we find marked lameness of the left shoulder, and when the animal is 
turned short to the left side he may groan with pain, and the heart's 
action become violently excited, although pressure against the chest- 
wall will not produce pain unless roughly applied. The animal is not 
disposed to eat or drink much ; the surface of the body and legs are 
cold — rarely excessively hot —and frequently the body of the animal is 
in a subdued tremor. In nearly all cases there is partial suppression 
of the urinary secretion. The symptoms may continue with very little 
modification for three or four days, sometimes seven days, without 
any marked changes. If fibrinous clots form in the heart the change 
will be sudden and quickly prove fatal unless they become loosened and 
are carried away in the circulation ; then apoplexy may result from the 
plugging of arteries too small to give further transmission. If the ani- 
mal manifests symptoms of improvement, the changes usually are slow 
and steady until he feels apparently as well as ever, eats well, and 
moves freely in his stall or yard. When he is taken out, however, the 
seeming strength often proves deceptive, as he may quickly weaken if 
urged into a fast gait, the breathing become quickened with a double 
flank movement as in heaves, and all the former symptoms reappear in 
a modified degree. An examination at this stage may reveal valvular 
insufficiency, cardiac hypertrophy, or pulmonary engorgement. 

In fatal cases of endocarditis death often occurs about the fourth day, 
from the formation of heart clot or too great embarrassment of the 
circulation. Endocarditis may be suspected in all cases where plain 
symptoms of cardiac affection are manifested in animals affected with 
influenza, rheumatism, or any disease in which the blood may convey 
septic matter. 

Acute endocardial inflammation may be distinguished from pleuritis 
by the absence of any friction murmer, absence of pain when the chest 
wall is percussed, and the absence of effusion in the cavity of the chest. 
It may be distinguished from pericarditis by the absence of the friction 
sounds and want of an enlarged area of dullness on percussion. 

Treatment. — The treatment will be similar in both myocarditis and 



228 

endocarditis. Tbe objects to be attained will be to remove or mitigate 
as much as possible tbe cause inducing the disease; to fiud a medicine 
which will lesseu tbe irritability of tbe heart without weakening it; 
and last, to maintain a free urinary secretion and prevent exudation 
and hypertrophy. So long as there is an increase of temperature, with 
some degree of scantiness of tbe urine, it may be safe to believe tbat 
there is some degree of inflammatory action existing in the cardiac 
structures, aud, as long as any evidence of inflammatory action remains, 
however moderate in degree, there is a tendency to increase or hyper- 
trophy of tbe connective tissue of tbe heart or valves, thereby render- 
ing it almost certain that the structural changes will become permanent 
unless counteracted by persistent treatment and complete rest. 

Tbe tincture of digitalis, in 20-drop doses, repeated every hour, is 
perhaps the most reliable agent we know to control the irritability 
of the heart, and this also has a decided influence upon the uri- 
nary secretion. After tbe desired impression upon the heart is ob- 
tained the dose may be repeated every two or three hours, or as the 
case may demand. Fluid extract of convallaria majalis, in 2-dram 
doses, will quiet the tumultuous action of the heart in some cases where 
the digitalis fails. Some veterinarians recommend bleeding, others cold 
packs around the chest or over the heart. The former is decidedly 
objectionable, because of its tendency to favor fibrinous exudation and 
clot formation ; the latter is too risky a proceeding in the majority of 
cases to warrant its use, for we find this disease in wet and damp sta- 
bles in the most aggravated and fatal forms. Blistering and stimulat- 
ing applications to the chest should also be avoided. They serve to 
irritate the animal and can do no possible good. Chlorate of potassa, 
in 2 dram doses, may be given in the drinking water every four hours 
for the first five or six days, and then be superceded by the nitrate of 
potassa, in half-ounce doses, for the following week, or until the urinary 
secretion becomes abnormally profuse. Where the disease is associated 
with rheumatism 2-dram doses of salicylate of soda may be substituted 
for the chlorate of potassa. To guard against chronic induration of the 
valves the iodide of potassa, in one to 2-dram doses, should be given 
early iu the disease, and may be repeated two or three times a day for 
several weeks. When chronic effects remain after the acute stage has 
passed this drug becomes indispensable. 

When dropsy of the limbs develops, it is due to weakened circulation 
or functional impairment of the kidneys. When there is much weak- 
ness in the action of the heart, or general debility is marked, the iodide 
of iron, in 1 dram doses, combined with hydrastis, 3 drams, may be 
given three times a day. Arsenic, iu 5-grain doses twice a day, will give 
excellent results in some cases of weak heart associated with difficult 
breathing. In all cases absolute rest and warm stabling, with comfort- 
able clothing, becomes necessary, and freedom from work should be 
allowed for a long time after all symptoms have disappeared. 



229 

ABSCESS IN THE HEART. 

This is a result of myocarditis, or it may arise from localized pyaemic 
infection or embolism of a coronary vessel, causing disintegration and 
death of a part. Such abscess may be single and large, or multiple 
and small. They may weaken the heart sufficiently to cause rupture 
of its walls, or may embarrass the circulation by pressure upon the 
orifices or cavities sufficient to produce death. 

Abscess of the heart cannot be diagnosed with any degree of cer- 
tainty. 

PERICARDITIS— INFLAMMATION OP THE SAC INCLOSING THE HEART. 

Causes. — Pericarditis may be induced by cold and damp stabling, 
exposure and fatigue, from wounds caused by broken ribs, etc. Gen- 
erally, however, it is associated with an attack of influenza, rheuma- 
tism, pleuritis, etc. 

Symptoms. — Usually the disease manifests itself abruptly by a brief 
stage of chills coincident with pain in moving, a short painful cough, 
rapid and short breathing, and high temperature, with a rapid and 
hard pulse. The fever is highest, with corresponding pulse, in the 
evening and lowest in the morning. In the early stages of the disease 
the pulse is regular in beat ; later, when there is much exudation pres- 
ent in the pericardial sac, the heart-beat becomes muffled, and may be 
of a doubled or rebounding character. By placing the ear against the 
left side of the chest behind the elbow a rasping sound may be heard, 
corresponding to the frequency of the heart-beat. This is known as 
the to-and-fro friction sound. Between the second and fourth days this 
sound may disappear, due to a distention of the pericardium by an exu- 
date or serious effusion. As soon as this effusion partly fills the peri- 
cardium, percussion will reveal an abnormally increased area of dull- 
ness over the region of the heart, the heartbeats become less perceptible 
than in health, and in some cases a splashing or flapping sound may 
become audible. 

If the effusion becomes absorbed, the to-and-fro friction sound usually 
recurs for a short time ; this friction may often be felt by applying the 
hand to the side of the chest. In a few cases clonic spasms of the mus- 
cles of the neck may be present. In acute pericarditis, when the effu- 
sion is rapid and excessive, the animal may die in a few days, or recovery 
may begin equally as early. In subacute or in chronic cases the effu- 
sion may slowly become augmented until the pressure upon the lungs 
aud interference with the circulation becomes so great that death will 
result. Whether the attack is acute, subacute, or chronic, the charac- 
teristic symptoms which will guide us to a correct diagnosis are the 
to-and-fro friction sound, which is always synchronous with the heart's 
action, the high temperature with hard, irritable pulse, and in cases of 
pericardial effusion the increased area of dullness over the cardiac 



230 

region. When the disease is associated with influenza or rheumatism 
some of the symptoms may be obscure, but a careful examination will 
reveal sufficient upon which to base a diagnosis. When pericarditis 
develops as a result of or in connection with pleuritis, the distinction 
may not be very clearly definable, neither will many recover. When 
it results from a wound or broken rib it almost invariably proves fatal. 

Pathology. — Pericarditis may at all times be regarded as a very seri- 
ous affection. At first we will find an intense injection or accumula- 
tion of blood in the vessels of the pericardium, giving it a red and swollen 
appearance, during which we have the friction sound. In twenty-four 
or forty-eight hours this engorgement is followed by an exudation of 
sero-fibrinous fluid, the fibrinous portion of which may soon form a coat- 
ing over the internal surface of the pericardial sac, and may ultimately 
form a union of the opposing surfaces. Generally this adhesion will 
only be found to occupy a portion of the surfaces. As the serous or 
watery portion of this effusion is absorbed, the distinctness of the fric- 
tion sound recurs, and may remain peceptible in varied degree for a 
long time. When the serous effusion is very great, the pressure exerted 
upon the heart weakens its action, and may produce death soon ; when 
it is not so great, it may cause dropsies of other portions of the body. 
When the adhesions of the pericardial sac to the body of the heart are 
extensive, they generally lead to increased growth or hypertrophy of 
the heart, with or without dilatation of its cavities ; when they are but 
slight, they may not cause any inconvenience. 

Treatment. — In acute or subacute pericarditis the tincture of digitalis 
and tincture of aconite root may be mixed, taking equal quantities, and 
give 20 to 30 drop doses every hour until the pulse and temperature 
become reduced. Bandages should be applied to the legs ; if they are 
very cold, tincture of capsicum should be first applied; the body should 
be warmly clothed in blankets, to promote perspiration. When the 
suffering from pain is very severe, 2 ounces of tincture of opium may 
be given once or twice a day; nitrate of potassa, half an ounce, in 
drinking water, every six hours ; after the third day, iodide of potassa, 
in 2-dram doses, may be substituted. Hot packs to the chest in the 
early stages of the disease may give marked relief, or smart blisters 
may be applied to the sides of the chest with benefit. If the disease 
becomes chronic, iodide of iron and gentian to support the strength 
will be indicated, but the iodide of potassa, in one or 2-dram doses, 
two or three times a day, must not be abandoned so long as there is au 
evidence of effusion or plastic exudate accumulating in the pericardial 
sac. Where the effusion is great and threatens the life of the patient, 
tapping, by au expert veterinarian, may save the animal. 

VALVULAR DISEASE OF THE HEART. 

Acute valvular disease can not be distinguished from endocarditis, 
and chronic valvular affections are generally the result of endocardial 
inflammation. The valves of the left side are the most subject — the 



231 

bicuspid or mitral, and the aortic or semilunar. It may consist of mere 
inflammation and swelling, or the edges of the valves may become 
agglutinated by the organization of the exudation, thus narrowing the 
passage. Valvular obstruction and adhesions may occur, or the tendi- 
nous cords may be lengthened or shortened, thus obstructing the orifices 
and permitting the regurgitation of blood. In protracted cases the 
fibrous tissue of the valves may be transformed into fibro-cartilage or 
bone, or there may be deposits of salts of lime beneath the serous mem- 
brane, which may terminate in ulceration, rupture, or fissures. Some- 
times the valves become covered by fibrinous, fleshy, or cartilaginous 
vegetations or excrescences. In cases of considerable dilatation of the 
heart there may be atrophy and shrinking of the valves. 

Symptoms. — Valvular disease may be indicated by a venous pulse, 
jerking pulse, intermittent pulse, irregular pulse; palpitation ; constant 
abnormal fullness of the jugular veins ; difficulty of breathing when the 
animal becomes excited, or is urged out of a walk or into a fast trot ; 
attacks of vertigo ; congestion of the brain ; dropsical swelling of the 
limbs. A blowing, cooing, or bubbling murmur may sometimes be heard 
by placing the ear over the heart on the left side of the chest. 

Hypertrophy, or dilatation, or both, usually follows valvular disease. 

Treatment. — When the pulse is irregular, or irritable, tonics, such as 
preparations of iron, gentian, and ginger may be given. When the 
action of the heart is jerking or violent, 20 to 30 drop doses of tincture 
of digitalis or of veratrum viride may be given until these symptoms 
abate. As the disease nearly always is the result of endocarditis, the 
iodide of potassa and general tonics, sometimes stimulants, when gen- 
eral debility supervenes, may be of temporary benefit. Very few ani- 
mals recover, or remain useful for any length of time, after once marked 
organic changes have taken place in the valvular structure of the heart. 

ADVENTITIOUS GROWTHS IN THE HEART. 

Fibrous, cartilaginous, and bony formations have been observed in 
some rare instances, in the muscular tissue. Isolated calcareous masses 
have sometimes been imbedded in the cardiac walls. Fibrinous coagula 
and polypous concretions may be found in the cavities of the heart. The 
former consist of coagulated fibrin, separated from the mass of blood, of 
a whitish or yellowish white color, translucent, of a jelly-like consistence, 
and having a nucleus in the center. They may slightly adhere to the sur- 
face of the cavity, from which they can easily be separated without 
altering the structure of the endocardium. They probably result from 
an excess of coagulability of fibrin, which is produced by an organiza- 
tion of the lymph during exudation. They are usually found in the 
right auricle and ventricle. 

Polypous concretions are firmer than the preceding, more opaque, of 
a fibrous texture, and may be composed of successive layers. In some 
instances they are exceedingly minute, while in others they almost fill 



232 

one or more of the cavities. Their color is usually white, but occa- 
sionally red from the presence of blood. They firmly adhere to the en- 
docardium, and when detached from it give it a torn appearance. Occa- 
sionally, avascular communication seems to exist between them and the 
substance of the heart. They may be the result of fibrinous exudation 
from inflammation of the inner surface of the heart, or the coagulation 
of a portion of the blood which afterwards contracts adhesion with the 
heart. These concretions prove a source of great inconvenience, and 
often danger, do matter how formed. They cause a diminution in the 
cavity in which they are found, thus narrowing the orifice through which 
the blood passes, or preventing a proper coaptation of the valves, which 
may produce most serious valvular disease. 

Symptoms. — These are frequently uncertain ; they may, however, be 
suspected when the action of the heart suddenly becomes embarrassed 
with irregular and confused pulsations, great difficulty of breathing, 
and the usual signs dependent upon the imperfect arterialization of 
the blood. 

Treatment. — Stimulants, whisky, or carbonate of ammonia, may be 
of service. 

FUNCTIONAL AND ORGANIC DISEASES OF THE HEART. 

The distinction between functional and organic diseases of the heart 
is not easily made. We may accept as a guide that the character of 
organic diseases of the heart is to progress, and that of functional to 
occur at regular intervals. Active exercise almost invariably aggra- 
vates organic, but seldom increases the symptoms of functional disease, 
and that the physical signs generally are soon developed, and remain 
permanent in organic, while they seldom exist in functional. 

PALPITATION OF THE HEART. 

This is a tumultuous and usually irregular beating of the heart. 
It may be due to a variety of causes, both functional and organic. We 
will, however, exclude the organic causes which lead to irregular action, 
and give it a more simple specification. It may occur as a result of 
indigestion, fright, increased nervousness, sudden excitement, exces- 
sive speeding, etc. (See " Thumps.") 

Symptoms. — The heart may act with such violence that each beat may 
jar the whole body of the animal, very commonly it may be heard at a 
short distance away from the animal. It can, usually, be traced very 
readily to the exciting cause, which we may be able to avoid or over- 
come in the future and thereby obviate subsequent attacks. Rest, a 
mild stimulant, or a dose or two of tincture of digitalis or opium, will 
generally give prompt relief. When it is due to organic impairment of 
the heart it must be regarded as a symptom, not as a matter for pri- 
mary specific treatment. 



233 

SYNCOPE — FATNTING. 

Actual fainting rarely occurs among horses. It may, however, be 
induced by a rapid and great loss of blood, pain of great intensity, a 
mechanical interference with the circulation of the brain, etc. 

Symptoms. — Syncope is characterized by a decrease or temporary sus- 
pension of the action of the heart and respiration, with partial or total 
loss of consciousness. It generally occurs suddenly, though there may 
be premonitory symptoms, as giddiness or vertigo, dilated pupil, stag- 
gering, blanching of the visible mucous membranes, a rapidly sinking 
pulse, and dropping to the ground. The pulse is feeble or ceases to 
beat ; the surface of the body turns cold ; breathing is scarcely to be 
perceived, and the animal may be entirely unconscious. This state is 
uncertain in duration ; generally it lasts only a few mkiutes ; the circu- 
lation becomes restored, breathing becomes more distinct, and con- 
sciousness and muscular strength return. In cases attended with much 
hemorrhage or organic disease of the heart, tbe fainting fit may be fatal, 
otherwise it will prove but a transient occurrence. In paralysis of the 
heart the symptoms may be exactly similar to syncope. Syncope may 
be distinguished from apoplexy by the absence of stertorous breathing, 
and lividity of the visible mucous membranes. 

Treatment. — Dash cold water on the head ; administer a stimulant, 4 
ounces of whisky or half an ounce of carbonate of ammonia. Prevent 
the animal from getting up too soon, or the attack may immediately 
recur. Afterwards, if the attack was due to weakness from loss of 
blood, impoverished blood, or associated with debility, general tonics, 
rest, and nourishing food are indicated. 

HYPERTROPHY OF THE HEART — CARDIAC ENLARGEMENT. 

Hypertrophy of the heart implies augmentation of bulk in its muscu- 
lar substance, with or without dilatation or contraction of its cavities. 
It may exist with or without other cardiac affections. In valvular 
disease or valvular insufficiency hypertrophy frequently results as a 
consequence of increased demand for propelling power. The difficul- 
ties with which it is most frequently connected are dilatation and ossi- 
fication of the valves. It may also occur in connection with atrophied 
kidneys, weak heart, etc. It may be caused by an increased determi- 
nation of blood to the organ, or from a latent form of myocarditis, and 
it may arise from a long-continued increase of action dependent upon 
nervous disease. All the cavities of the heart may have their walls hy- 
pertrophied or the thickening may involve one or more. While the wall 
of a ventricle is thickened its cavity may retain its normal size — simple 
hypertrophy — or be dilated — eccentric hypertrophy — or it may be con- 
tracted — concentric hypertrophy. Hypertrophy of both ventricles in- 
creases the length and breadth of the heart. Hypertrophy of the left 
^ventricle alone increases its length, of the right ventricle alone in- 



234 

creases its breadth toward the right side. Hypertrophy with dilatation 
may affect the chambers of the heart conjointly or separately. This 
form is by far the most frequent variety of cardiac enlargement. When 
the entire heart is affected it assumes a globular appearance, the apex 
being almost obliterated, and situated transversely in the chest. The 
bulk may become three or four times greater than the average size of 
heart. 

Symptoms. — In hypertrophy of the heart, in addition to the usual 
symptoms manifested in organic diseases of the heart, there is a power- 
ful and heaving impulse at each beat, which may be felt on the left 
side, often also on the right. These pulsations are regular, and when 
full and strong at the jaw there is a tendency to active congestion of 
the capillary vessels, which frequently gives rise to local inflammation, 
active haemorrhage, etc. If the pulse is small and feeble at the jaw we 
may conclude that there is some obstacle to the escape of the blood from 
the left ventricle into the aorta, which has given rise to the hypertro- 
phy. In case of hypertrophy with dilatation, the impulse is not only 
powerful and heaving, but it is diffused over the whole region of the 
heart, and the normal sounds of the heart are greatly increased in in- 
tensity. Percussion reveals an enlarged area of dullness, while the im- 
pulse is usually much stronger than normal. 

Dropsy of the pericardium will give the same wide space of dullness, 
but the impulse and sound are lessened. An animal with a moderate 
degree of enlargement may possibly live a number of years and be 
capable of ordinary work; it depends largely upon concomitant disease. 
As a rule, an animal affected with hypertrophy of the heart will soon 
be incapacitated for work, and become useless and incurable. 

Treatment. — If the cause can be discovered and is removable it should 
be done. The iodide of potassa, in cases of valvular thickening, may 
be of some benefit if continued for a sufficient length of time ; it may be 
given in 2-dram doses, twice a day, for a month or more. Hydrocyanic 
acid, in 30 drop doses twice a day, may relieve abnormal muscular ir- 
ritability. General tonics, freedom from excitement or fatigue, avoid- 
ance of bulky food, good ventilation, etc., are indicated. 

DILATATION OF THE HEART. 

This is an enlargement of the cavities of the heart, and may be con- 
fined to one or extend to all. Two forms of dilatation may be men- 
tioned — simple dilatation, where there is normal thickness of the walls, 
and passive or attenuated dilatation, where the walls are simply distended 
or stretched out without any addition of substance. 

Causes. — Any cause producing constant and excessive exertion of 
the heart may lead to dilatation. Valvular disease is the most frequent 
cause. General anaemia predisposes to it by producing relaxation of 
muscular fiber. Changes in the muscular tissue of the heart-walls, 
serous infiltration from pericarditis, myocarditis, fatty degeneration 



235 

and infiltration, atrophy of the muscular fibers, may all lead to dilata- 
tion. 

Symptoms. — The movements of the heart are feeble and prolonged, a 
disposition to staggering or vertigo, dropsy of the limbs, very pale or 
very dark-colored membranes, and difficult breathing on the slightest 
excitement. 

Treatment. — General tonics, rich food, and rest. 

FATTY DEGENERATION OF THE HEART. 

Fatty degeneration may involve the whole organ, or may be limited 
to its walls, or even to circumscribed patches. The latter is situated at 
theexterior, and givesitamottled appearance. When generally involved 
it is flabby or flaccid, and in extreme cases collapses when emptied or 
cut. Upon dissection the interior of the ventricles is observed to be 
covered with buff-colored spots of a singular zigzag form. This ap- 
pearance may be noticed beneath the pericardium, and pervading the 
whole thickness of the ventricular walls, and in extreme cases those of 
the fleshy columns in the interior of the heart. These spots are found 
to be degenerated muscular fibers and colonies of oil-globules. Fatty 
degeneration is often associated with other morbid conditions of the 
heart, as obesity, dilatation, rupture, aneurism, etc. It may be con- 
nected with fatty diseases of other organs, as the liver, kidneys, etc. 
When it exists alone its presence is seldom suspected previous to death. 
It may be secondary to hypertrophy of the heart, to myocarditis, or to 
pericarditis. It may be due to deteriorated conditions of the blood in 
wasting diseases, excessive hemorrhages, etc., or to poisoning with ar- 
senic and phosphorus. 

Symptoms. — The most prominent symptoms of fatty degeneration are 
a feeble action of the heart, a remarkably slow pulse, general debility, 
and attacks of vertigo. It may exist for a long time, but is apt to sud- 
denly terminate in death upon the occurrence of other diseases, surgical 
operations, etc. It may involve a liability to sudden death from rupture 
of the ventricular walls. 

Treatment. — Confinement in feed to oats, wheat or rye bran, and 
timothy hay. Twenty drops of sulphuric acid may be given in drink- 
ing-water three times a day, and hypophosphite of iron in 2-dram doses, 
mixed with the feed twice a day. Other tonics and stimulants as they 
may be indicated. 

ATROPHY OF THE HEART — WASTING. 

A diminution of muscular substance of the heart and consequent de- 
crease in bulk and weight. It is generally due to imperfect nutrition 
from occlusion of the blood-vessels which supply it. 

Symptoms. — The heart beat is weak and hardly perceptible ; the area 
of dullness over the region of the heart is lessened. Further than this 



236 

it furnishes no characteristic symptoms which distinguish it from some 
other diseases of this organ. Treatment is of no avail. 

RUPTURE OF THE HEART. 

This may occur as the result of some previous disease, as fatty de- 
generation, dilatation with weakness of the muscular walls, etc. It 
may be caused by external violence, a crushing fall, pressure of some 
great weight, etc. Usually, death follows a rupture very quickly, 
though an animal may live for some time when the rent is not very 
large. 

WEAKNESS OF THE HEART. 

This may arise from general debility, the result of exhausting disease, 
overwork or heart strain, or loss of blood. It is indicated by a small, 
feeble, but generally regular pulse, coldness of the body, etc. 

Treatment. — This should be directed to support and increase the 
strength of the animal, by tonics, rest, and nutritious food. Carbonate 
of ammonia may be given to stimulate the heart's action and to pre- 
vent the formation of heart-clot. 

CONGESTION OF THE HEART. 

Congestion, or an accumulation of the blood in the cavities of the 
heart, may occur in consequence of fibrinous deposits interfering with 
the free movements of the valves, usually the product of endocarditis. 

Symptoms. — Great difficulty of breathing, paleness of the visible mu- 
cous membranes, great anxiety, frequently accompanied by a general 
tremor and cold perspiration, followed by death. It usually results in 
death very quickly. 

CYANOSIS. 

This is a condition sometimes found in foals immediately after birth, 
and is due to nou-closure of the foramen ovale, which allows a mixtner 
of the venous with the arterial blood in the left cavities of the heart. 
It is characterized by a dark purple or bluish color of the visible mucous 
membranes, shortness of breath, and general feebleness. Foals thus 
affected generally live only a few hours after birth. 

DISEASES OF ARTERIES — ARTERITIS AND ENDARTERITIS. 

Inflammation of arteries is rarely observed in the horse as a pri- 
mary affection. Direct injuries, such as blows, may produce a contu- 
sion and subsequent inflammation of the wall of an artery; severe 
muscular strain may involve an arterial trunk; hypertrophy of the 
heart, by increasing arterial teusion, may result in the production of a 
general endarteritis. Septic infection may affect the inner coat and 
ultimately involve all three, or it maybe the result of an inflammation 
in the vicinity of the vessels, etc. Inflammation of arteries, whatever 



237 

the cause may be, often leads to very serious results in the development 
of secondary changes in their walls. Arteritis may be acute, subacute, 
or chronic ; when the inner coat alone is affected it is known as endar 
teritis. 

Symptoms. — Arteritis is characterized by a painful swelling along the 
inflamed vessel, throbbing pulse, coldness of the parts supplied by the 
inflamed vessel, sometimes the formation of gangrenous sloughs, sup- 
puration, abscess, etc. In an inflammation of the iliac arteries we find 
coldness and excessive lameness or paralysis of one or both hind limbs. 

Pathology. — In acute arteritis we find swelling along the vessel, loss 
of elasticity, friability, and thickening of the walls ; a roughness and 
loss of gloss of the inner coat, with the formation of coagula or pus in 
the vessel. Subacute or chronic arteritis may affect only the the outer 
coat — periarteritis j both the outer and middle coat, or the inner coat 
alone — endarteritis 5 and by weakening the respective coats leads to rup- 
ture, aneurism, or to degenerations, such as bony, calcareous, fatty, 
atheromatous, etc. It may also lead to sclerosis or increase of fibrous 
tissue, especially in the kidneys, when it may result in the condition 
known as arterio-capillary fibrosis. Chronic endarteritis is fruitful in 
the production of thrombus and atheroma. Arteritis may be limited to 
single trunks, or it may affect, more or less, all the arteries of the body. 
Arteries which are at the seat of chronic endarteritis are liable to suf- 
fer degenerative changes, consisting chiefly of fatty degeneration, cal- 
cification, or the breaking down of the degenerated tissue, and the 
formation of erosions or ulcer-like openings in the inner coat. These 
erosions are frequently called atheromatous ulcers, and fragments of 
tissue from these ulcers may be carried into the circulation, forming 
emboli. Fibrinous thrombi are apt to form upon the roughened sur- 
face of the inner coat, or upon the surface of the erosions. 

Fatty degeneration and calcification of the middle and outer coats 
may occur, and large, hard, calcareous plates project inward, upon which 
thrombi may form or may exist in connection with atheroma of the in- 
ner coat. When there is much thickening and increase of new tissue 
in the wall of the affected artery, it may encroach upon the capacity of 
the vessel, and even lead to obliteration. This is often associated with 
interstitial inflammation of glandular organs. 

Treatment. — Carbonate of potassa in dram doses, to be given in four 
ounces liquor acetate of ammonia every six hours. Scalded bran suffi- 
cient to produce loosening of the bowels, and complete rest. Exter- 
nally, applications of hot water or hot hop infusion. 

ATHEROMA. 

Atheroma is a direct result of an existing chronic endarteritis, the 
lining membrane of the vessels being invariably involved to a greater 
or less degree. It is most frequently found in the arteries, although 



238 

the veins may develop an atheromatous condition when exposed to any 
source of prolonged irritation. Atheroma may affect arteries in any 
part of the body ; in some instances almost every vessel is diseased, in 
others only a few, or even parts of one vessel. It is a very common 
result of endocarditis extending into the aorta, which we find perhaps 
the most frequent seat of atheroma. As a result of this condition the 
affected vessel becomes impaired in its contractile power, loses its nat- 
ural strength, and in consequence of its inability to sustain its accus- 
tomed internal pressure, undergoes, in many cases, dilatation at the seat 
of disease, constituting aneurism. In an atheromatous vessel, calcare- 
ous deposits soon occur, which render it rigid, brittle, and subject to 
ulceration or rupture. In such vessels the contractility is destroyed, 
the middle coat atrophied and beyond repair. Atheroma in the vessels 
of the brain is a frequent cause of cerebral apoplexy. No symptoms 
are manifested by which we can recognize this condition during life. 

CONSTRICTION OF AN ARTERY. 

This is usually the result of arteritis, and may partly or wholly be 
impervious to the flow of blood. When this occurs in a large vessel it 
may be followed by gangrene of the parts; usually, however,-collateral 
circulation will be established to nourish the parts previously supplied 
by the obliterated vessel. In a few instances constriction of the aorta 
has produced death. 

ANEURISM. 

Aneurism is usually described as true and false. True aneurism is a 
dilatation of the coats of an artery over a larger or smaller part of its 
course. Such dilatations are usually due to chronic endarteritis and 
atheroma. False aneurism is formed after a puncture of an artery by 
a dilatation of the adhesive lymph by which the puncture was united. 

Symptoms. — If the aneurism is seated along the neck or a limb, it ap- 
pears as a tumor in the course of an artery, and pulsating with it. The 
tumor is round, soft, and compressible, and yields a peculiar fluctuation 
upon pressure. By applying the ear over it a peculiar purring or hiss- 
ing sound may sometimes be heard. Pulsation, synchronous with the 
action of the heart, is the diagnostic symptom. It is of a slow, expan- 
sive, and heavy character, as if the whole tumor were enlarging under 
the hand. Aneurisms seated internally may occupy the cavity of the 
cranium, chest, or abdomen. As regards the first, little is known dur- 
ing life, for all the symptoms which they produce may arise from other 
causes. Aneurism of the anterior aorta may be situated very closely to 
the heart or in the arch, and it is very seldom that we can distinguish it 
from disease of the heart. The tumor may encroach upon the wind-pipe 
and produce difficulty in breathing, or it may produce pressure upon the 
venae cavse or the thoracic duct, obstructing the flow of blood and lymph. 



239 

In fact, whatever parts the aneurism may reach or subject to its pres- 
sure, may have their functions suspended or disturbed. When the 
tumor in the chest is large we generally find much irregularity in the 
action of the heart; the superficial veins of the neck are distended, and 
there is usually dropsical swelling under the breast aud of the limbs. 
There may be a very troublesome cough without any evidence of luug 
affection. Sometimes pulsation of the tumor may be felt at the lower 
part of the neck where it joins the chest. When ihe aneurism occurs 
in the posterior aorta no diagnostic symptoms are appreciable; when it 
occurs in the internal iliac arteries an examination per rectum will re- 
veal it. 

There is one form of aneurism which is not unfrequeutly overlooked, 
affecting the anterior mesenteric artery, primarily induced by a worm — 
the Strongylus armatus. This worm produces an arteritis, with atheroma, 
degeneration, and dilatation of the mesenteric arteries, associated with 
thrombus and aneurism. The aneurism gives rise to colic, which ap- 
pears periodically in a very violent and often persistent type. Ordinary 
colic remedies have no effect, and after a time the animal succumbs to 
the disease. In all cases of animals which are habitually subject to 
colicky attacks, parasitic aneurism of the anterior mesenteric artery 
may be suspeeted. 

Pathology. — Aneurisms may be diffuse or sacculated. The diffuse con- 
sists in a uniform dilatation of all the coats of an artery, so that it as- 
sumes the shape of a cylindrical swelling. The wall of the aneurism 
is atheromatous or calcified; the middle coat may be atrophied. The 
sacculated or circumscribed aneurism consists either in a dilatation of 
the entire circumference of an artery over a short portion of its length, 
or in a dilatation of only a small portion of one side of the wall. Aneu- 
rism may become very large; as it increases in size it presses upon and 
causes the destruction of neighboring tissues. The cavity of the aneu- 
rismal sac is filled with fluid or clotted blood, or with layers of fibrin 
which adhere closely to its wall. Death is produced usually by the 
pressure and interference of the aneurism with adjoining organs, or by 
rupture. In worm aneurism we usually find large thrombi within the 
aneurismal dilatation of the artery, which sometimes plug the whole 
vessel or extend into the aorta. Portions of this thrombus or clot may 
be washed away and produce embolism of a smaller artery. The effect 
in either case is to produce anaemia of the intestinal canal, serous or 
bloody exudation in its walls, which leads to paralysis of the intestine 
and resultant colicky symptoms. 

Treatment. — The only treatment advisable is to extirpate or ligate the 
tumor above and below. 

RUPTURE OF AN ARTERY. 

Endarteritis, with its subsequent changes in the walls of arteries, is 
the primary cause of ruoture in the majority of instances. The rupture 



240 

may be partial, involving only one or two coats, and will then form an 
aneurism. If complete, it may produce death when it involves a large 
vessel, especially if it is situated in one of the large cavities permitting 
an excessive escape of blood. Kupture may be produced by mechanical 
violence or accident. 

Symptoms. — In fatal rupture associated with profuse bleeding, the 
animal becomes weak, the visible mucuous membranes become blanched, 
the breathing hurried or gasping, pupils dilated, staggering in gait, 
syncope, death. "When the hemorrhage is limited, the symptoms may 
not become noticeable ; if it is near the surface of the body a round or 
diffuse swelling or tumor may form, constituting a hygroma. If the 
rupture is associated with an external wound the bleeding artery should 
be ligated, or where a bandage is applicable, pressure may be applied 
by tight bandaging. As a secondary result of rupture of an artery we 
may have formation of abscess, gangrene of a part, etc. 

Treatment. — "When rupture of a deep-seated artery is suspected, large 
doses of fluid extract of ergot may be given to produce contraction of 
the blood-vessels. Tannin and iron are also useful. The animal should 
be allowed to have as much water as he desires. Afterwards stimulants 
and nourishing food are indicated. 

THROMBUS AND EMBOLISM. 

By thrombosis is generally understood the partial or complete closure 
of a vessel by a morbid product developed at the site of the obstruc- 
tion. The coagulum, which is usually fibrinous, is known as a throm- 
bus. The term embolism designates an obstruction caused by any body 
detached and transported from the interior of the heart, or of some ves- 
sel. Thrombi occur as the result of an injury to the wall of the vessel, 
or may follow its compression or dilatation ; they may result from some 
alteration of the wall of the vessel by disease, or by the retardation of 
the circulation. These formations may occur during life, in the heart, 
arteries, veins, or in the portal system. When a portion of fibrin coag- 
ulates in one of the arteries and is carried along by the circulation, it 
will be arrested, of course, in the capillaries, if not before; when in the 
veins it may not be stopped until it reaches the lungs; and when in the 
portal system the capillaries of the liver will prevent itsfurther progress. 
The formation of thrombi may act primarily by causing partial or com- 
plete obstruction, and secondarily, either by larger or smaller frag- 
ments becoming detached from their end, and by being carried along 
by the circulation of the blood to remote vessels, embolism ; or by the 
coagulum becoming softened and converted into pus, constituting sup- 
purative phlebitis. These substances occur most frequently in those 
affections characterized by great exhaustion or debility, as pneumonia, 
purpura hsemorrhagica, endocarditis, phlebitis, puerpural fever, hem- 
orrhages, etc. These concretions may form suddenly and produce in- 
stantaneous death by retarding the blood current, or they may arise 



241 

gradually, in which case the thrombi may be organized and attached to 
the walls of the heart, or they may soften, and fragments of them (em- 
boli) may be carried away. The small, wart-like excrescences, occur- 
ring sometimes in endocarditis, may occasionally form a foundation on 
which a thrombi may develop. 

Symptoms. — When heart clot or thrombus exists in the right side the 
return of blood from the body and the aeration in the lungs is im- 
peded, and if death occurs it is owing to syncope rather than to stran- 
gulation in pulmonary respiration. There will be hurried and gasping 
breathing, paleness and coldness of the surface of the body, a feeble 
and intermittent or fluttering pulse, and fainting. When a fibrinous 
coagulum is carried into the pulmonary artery from the right side of the 
heart, the indications are a swelling and infiltration of the lungs and 
pulmonary apoplexy. When the clot is situated in the left cavities of 
the heart or in the aorta, death, if it occurs, takes place either suddenly 
or at the end of a few hours from coma. 

Pathology. — When a coagulum is observed in the heart it may become 
a question whether it was formed during life or after death. The loose? 
dark coagula, so often found after death, are polypi. If the deposition 
has taken place during the last moments of life, the fibrin will be iso- 
lated and soft, but not adherent to the walls ; if it be isolated, dense, 
and adherent or closely intertwined with the muscles of the papillae and 
tendinous cords, the deposition has occurred more or less remote from 
the act of dying. Occasionally the fibrin may be seen lining one of th e 
cavities of the heart, like a false endocardium, or else forming an addi- 
tional coat to the aorta or other large vessels without producing much 
obstruction. Thrombi, in some instances, soften in their centers, and 
are then observed to contain a pus-like substance. If this softening has 
extended considerably an outer shell or cyst only may remain. The 
sources of danger exist not only in the interruption of the circulation of 
the blood, but also in a morbid state of the system, produced by the dis- 
turbed nutrition of a limb or organ, as well as the mingling of purulent 
and gangrenous elements with the blood. 

Treatment. — The urgent symptoms should be relieved by rest, stim- 
ulants, and the use of agents which will act as solvents to the fibrinous 
clots. Alkalies are specially useful for this purpose. Carbonate of 
ammonia may be administered in all cases of thrombus, and should be 
continued for a long time in small doses several times a day. In cases 
of great debility associated with a low grade of fever, stimulants and 
tonics, and nitro- muriatic acid as an antiseptic, may be beneficial. 

DISEASES OF VEINS — PHLEBITIS. 

Inflammation of veins may be simple or diffuse. In simple phlebitis 
the disease of the vein is confined to a circumscribed or limited portion 
of a vein ; in diffuse it involves the vein for a long distance j it may even 
extend from a limb or foot to the heart, 
X1035 -XG 



242 

Causes. — Phlebitis may be induced by contusions or direct injuries, 
an extension of iuflamination from surrounding tissue, as in abscess, 
formation of tumor, or malignant growth. It is often due to embolism of 
infective material, gangrenous matter, etc. Blood-letting from the 
jugular vein is occasionally followed by dangerous phlebitis. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms vary according to the extent and severity 
of the inflammation. In most cases the vein is swollen, thickened, and 
indurated to such a degree as to resemble an artery. A diffused 
swelling, with great tenderness, may extend along the affected vessel 
and the animal manifest all the symptoms connected with acute fever 
and general functional disturbance. 

Pathology. — The disease is only serious when large veins are affected. 
The coats undergo the same changes as in arteritis, clots of blood and 
lymph plug the inflamed vessel, and if the inflammatory process con- 
tinues these are converted into pus, which ruptures the vessel and pro- 
duces a deep abscess ; or it may be carried away in the circulation and 
produce metastatic abcess in the lungs or other remote organs. In 
mild cases the clots may become absorbed and the vessel restored to 
health. Phlebitis in thecourse of the veins of the limbs frequently leads 
to numerous abscesses, which may be mistaken for farcy ulcerations. 
A very common result of phlebitis is an obliteration of the affected por- 
tion of the vein, but as collateral circulation is readily established this 
is seldom of any material inconvenience. 

Treatment. — Phlebitis should be treated by the application of a smart 
blister along the course of the inflamed vessel ; early opening of any 
abscesses which may form ; the animal should have complete rest, and 
the bowels be kept loose with bran mashes. When the fever runs high, 
half-ounce doses of nitrate of potassa may be given in the drinking 
water, which may be changed in two or three days for dram doses of 
the iodide of potassa. If the animal becomes debilitated, carbonate of 
ammonia, 1 dram, and powdered gentian, 3 drams, may be given every 
six hours. 

VARTCOSE VEINS — VARIX — DILATATION OF VEINS. 

This may be a result of weakening of the coats from inflammatory 
disease and degeneration. It may also be due to mechanical obstruc- 
tion from internal or external sources. It is sometimes found in the 
vein which lies superficial over the inside of the hock-joint, and may 
be due to the pressure of a spavin. Occasionally it may be observed 
in stallions, which are more or less subject to varicocele or dilatation of 
the veins of the testicular cord. Hemorrhoidal veins or piles are occa- 
sionally met with, generally in horses which run at pasture. Varicose 
veins may ulcerate and form an abscess in the surrounding tissues, or 
they may rupture from internal blood pressure and the blood form 
large tumors where the tissues are soft. 

Treatment. — Stallions which manifest a tendency to varicocele should 



243 

wear suspensory bags when they are exercised. Piles may often be re- 
duced by astringent washes — tea made from white oak bark or a satu- 
rated solution of alum. The bowels should be kept loose with bran 
mashes and the animal kept quiet in the stable. When varicose veins 
exist superficially and threaten to produce iuconvenience, they may be 
ligated above and below and thus obliterated. Sometimes absorption 
may be induced by constant bandages. 

AIR IN VEINS — AIR EMBOLISM. 

It was formerly supposed that the entrance of air into a vein at the 
time of the infliction of a wound or in blood-letting was extremely dan- 
gerous and very often produced sudden death by interfering with the 
circulation of the blood through the heart and lungs. Danger from air 
embolism is exceedingly doubtful, unless great quantities were forced 
into a large vein by artificial means. 

PURPURA HEMORRHAGICA. 

Purpura hemorrhagica usually occurs as a sequel to debilitating dis- 
eases, such as strangles, influenza, etc. It may, however, arise in the 
absence of any previous disease in badly ventilated stables, among 
poorly-fed horses, and in animals subject to exhausting work and ex- 
treme temperatures. It is apparently due to a primary deterioration of 
the blood* weakness of the capillary vessels, and general debility or ex- 
haustion of the nervous system. Its gravity does not depend so much 
upon the amount of blood extravasated as it does upon the disturbance 
or dimiuished action of the vasomotor centers. 

Symptoms. — This disease becomes manifested by the occurrence of 
sudden swellings on various parts of the body, on the head or lips, limbs, 
abdomen, etc. They may be diffused or very markedly circumscribed, 
though in the advanced stages they cover large areas. They pit on 
pressure and are but slightly painful to the touch. The limbs may 
swell to a very large size, the nostrils may become almost closed, and 
the head and throat may swell to the point of suffocation. The swell- 
ings not infrequently disappear from one portion of the body and de- 
velop on another, or may recede from the surface and invade the intes- 
tinal mucous membrane. The mucous lining of the nostrils and mouth 
is covered with dark red or purple spots, a bloody colored serum flows 
from the nostrils, the tongue may be swollen and prevent eating or 
closing of the jaws. In twenty-four or forty-eight hours bloody serum 
may exude through the skin over the swollen parts, and finally large 
gangrenous sloughs may form. The temperature is never very high, 
the pulse is frequent and compressible, and becomes feebler as the ani- 
mal loses strength. A cough is usually present. The urine is scanty 
and high colored, and when the intestines are much affected a bloody 
diarrhea may set in, with colicky pains. Some of the internal organs 



244 

become implicated in the disease, the lungs may become cedematous, 
extravasation may occur in the iutestinal canal, or effusion of serum 
into the cavity of the chest or abdomen ; occasionally the brain becomes 
affected. A few cases run a mild course and recovery may commeuce 
iu three or four days, generally, however, the outlook is unfavorable. 
In severe cases septic poisoning is liable to occur, which soon brings 
the case to a fatal issue. 

Pathology. — On section we find the capillaries dilated, the connective 
tissue filled with a coagulable or coagulated lymph, and frequently we 
may discover gangrenous spots beneath the skin or involving the skiu. 
The lymphatic glands are swollen and inflamed. Extensive extravasa- 
tions of blood may be found imbedded between the coats of the intes- 
tines, or excessive effusion into the substance of the luugs. 

Treatment. — Diffusible stimulants and tonics should be given from 
the very start, regardless of fever or frequency of the pulse. Carbon- 
ate of ammonia, 1 dram; fluid extract of red cinchona bark, 2 drams, and 
tincture of ginger half an ounce, with half a pint of water; thin gruel or 
milk should be given every four or six hours. Sulphate of iron in dram 
doses may be dissolved in water and given every six hours. Chlorate, 
of potassa in 2-ounce doses may be given every eight or twelve hours. 
When the discharges from the mouth and nose become offensive to the 
smell, 10 drops of carbolic acid in 2 ounces of water may be given in a 
drench, or thrown on the root of the tongue with a syringe several times 
a day. Where the swelling is very great, incisions half an inch iu 
length penetrating the skin should be made with a sharp knife, to per- 
mit drainage. The application of liniments or washes externally are of 
no use, and if injudiciously used may do harm. Complications, when 
they arise, must be treated with proper circumspection. 

DISEASES OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM. 

The lymphatic or absorbent system is connected with the blood vas- 
cular system, and consists of a series of tubes which absorb and convey 
to the blood certain fluids. These tubes lead to lymphatic glands, 
through which the fluids pass to reach the right lymphatic vein and 
thoracic duct, both of which enter the venous system near the heart. 
Through the excessively thin walls of the capillaries the fluid part of 
the blood transudes, to nourish the tissues outside the capillaries ; at 
the same time fluid passes from the tissues into the blood. The fluid, 
after it passes into the tissues, constitutes the lymph, and acts like a 
stream irrigating the tissue elements. Much of the surplus of this 
lymph passes into the lymph vessels, which in their commencement can 
hardly be treated as independent structures, since their walls are so 
closely joined with the tissues through which they pass, being nothing 
more than spaces in the connective tissue until they reach the larger 
lymph vessels, which finally empty into lymph glands. These lymph 
glands are structures so placed that the lymph flowing towards the 



245 

larger trunks passes through them, undergoing a sort of filtration. From 
the fact of this arrangement lymph glands are subject to inflammatory 
diseases in the vicinity of diseased structures, because infective mate- 
rial being conveyed in the lymph stream lodges in the glands and pro- 
duces irritation. 

LOCAL INFLAMMATION AND ABSCESS OF LYMPHATIC GLANDS. 

Acute inflammation of the lymph glands usually occurs in connection 
with some inflammatory process in the region from which its lymph is 
gathered. Several or all of the glands in a cluster may become affected, 
as in strangles, nasal catarrh, or nasal gleet, diseased or ulcerated teeth, 
the lymph glands between the branches of the lower jaw almost inva- 
riably become affected, which may lead to suppuration or induration. 
Similar results obtain in other portions of the body; in pneumonia the 
bronchial glands become affected 5 in pharyngitis, the post-pharyngeal 
glands lying above the trachea become affected, etc. 

Symptoms. — The glands swell and become painful to the touch, the 
connective tissue surrounding them becomes involved, suppuration 
usually takes place, and one or more abscesses form. If the inflamma- 
tion is of a milder type, resolution may take place and the swelling 
recede, the exudative material being absorbed, and the gland restored 
without the occurrence of suppuration. In the limbs a whole chain of 
the glands along the lymphatic vessels may become affected, as in farcy, 
phlebitis,. or septic poisoning. 

Treatment. — Fomentation with hot water, the application of cam- 
phorated soap liniment, or camphorated oil, may produce a revulsive 
action and prevent suppuration. If there is any indication of abscess 
forming, poultices of linseed meal and bran made into a paste with hot 
water should be applied, or a mild blistering ointment rubbe d in over 
the swollen gland. As soon as fluctuation can be felt a free opening 
must be made for the escape of the contained pus. The wound may 
subsequently be washed out with a solution of chloride of zinc, 5 grains 
to the ounce of water, three times a day. 

HYPERTROPHIED LYMPHATICS. 

This is characterized by an enlargement and growth of lymphatic 
glands; the causes are obscure, but they sometimes attain an enormous 
size, and seriously interfere with neighboring organs. This condition 
is sometimes found in the region of the throat above the larynx, and 
produces wheezing or roaring, by pressing upon the recurrent laryngeal 
nerve. It may occur in the bronchial glands of the chest, and interfere 
with the action of the heart and respiration. The swelling is not pain- 
ful or feverish, it may be very hard or may be rather soft ; occasionally 
they contain a cheesy deposit or even undergo calcification. A condition 
almost similar to this may be induced by chronic inflammation. In such 
cases, however, the glandular structure may become lessened, as the 



246 

result of pressure by an increase of fibrous or connective tissue, although 
a large tumor at the site of the gland remains. This may become grad- 
ually absorbed, more often, however, recurrence of inflammation takes 
place and frequently small abscesses form. 

Treatment. — Repeated blistering with ointment of cantharides 8 parts, 
bin -iodide of mercury 1 part, to be thoroughly mixed and applied once 
in ten days or two weeks. If this fails, extirpation will become neces- 
sary. 

LYMPHANGITIS. 

Specific inflammation of the lymphatic structures, usually affecting the 
hind leg, very seldom a fore leg. This disease is very sudden in its 
attack, exceedingly painful, accompanied by a high temperature, and 
great general disturbance. 

Causes. — Horses of lymphatic or sluggish temperament are predis- 
posed to this affection. It usually attacks well-fed animals, and in such 
cases may be due to an excess of nutritive elements in the blood. Sud- 
den changes in work or in the habits of the animal may inducean attack. 

Symptoms. — It is usually ushered in by a chill, rise in temperature, 
and some uneasiness; in a very short time this is followed by lameness 
in one leg and swelling on the inside of the thigh. The swelling gradu- 
ally surrounds the whole limb, continues on downward until it reaches 
the foot. The limb is excessively tender to the touch, the animal per- 
spires, the breathing is accelerated, pulse hard and quick, and the tem- 
perature may reach 106° Fah. The bowels early become constipated, 
and the urine scanty. The symptoms usually are on the increase for 
about two days, then they remain stationary for the same length of 
time ; the fever then abates ; the swelling recedes and becomes less 
painful. It is very seldom, though, that all the swelling leaves the leg; 
generally it leaves -some permanent enlargement, and the animal be- 
comes subject to recurrent attacks. Occasionally, the inguinal lym- 
phatic glands (in the groin) undergo suppuration, and pyaemia may 
supervene and prove fatal. In severe cases the limb becomes denuded 
of hair in patches, the skin remains indurated with a fibrous growth, 
which is known by the name of elephantiasis. 

Treatment. — Fomentations with vinegar and water, equal parts, to 
which add 2 ounces of nitrate of potassa for each gallon. This should be 
applied every ten or fifteen minutes for six or eight hours, then the leg 
may be dried with a woolen cloth and bathed with camphorated soap 
liniment. Internally, administer tincture of digitalis and aconite root, 
equal parts of each, 30 drops every hour until the fever and pulse be- 
come reduced. Half-ounce doses of nitrate of potassa in the drinking- 
water every six hours, bran m ashes, and complete rest. This treatment, 
if instituted early in the attack, very frequently brings about a remark- 
able change within twenty-four hours. 




S" 5^ ^ •^ ^ <s£ *< °tf 



DISEASES OF THE EYE. 



By Dr. JAMES LAW, F. R. C. V. S., 

Professor of Veterinary Science, etc., Cornell University. 



We can scarcely overestimate the value of sound eyes in the horse, 
and hence all diseases and injuries which seriously interfere with vision 
are matters of extreme gravity and apprehension, for should they prove 
permanent they invariably depreciate the selling price to a considerable 
extent. A blind horse is always dangerous in the saddle or in single 
harness, and he is scarcely less so when, with partially impaired vision, 
he sees things imperfectly, in a distorted form or in a wrong place, and 
when he shies or avoids objects which are commonplace or familiar. 
When we add to this that certain diseases of the eyes, Uke recurring 
inflammation (moon blindness), are habitually transmitted from parent 
to offspring, we can realize still more fully the importance of these mala- 
dies. Again, as a mere matter of beauty, a sound, full, clear, intelligent 
eye is something which must always add a high value to our equine 
friends and servants. 

THE EYEBALL. 

A full description of the structure of the eye is incompatible with our 
prescribed limits, and yet a short description is absolutely essential to 
the clear understanding of what is to follow. 

The horse's eye is a spheroidal body, flattened behind, and with its 
posterior four-fifths inclosed by an opaque, white, strong fibrous mem- 
brane (the sclerotic), on the inner side of which is laid a more delicate 
friable membrane, consisting mainly of blood-vessels and pigment cells 
(the choroid), and that in its turn is lined by the extremely delicate and 
sensitive expansion of the nerve of sight (the retina). The anterior fifth 
of the globe of the eye bulges forward from what would have been the 
direct line of the sclerotic, and thus forms a segment of a much smaller 
sphere than is inclosed by the sclerotic. Its walls, too, have in health 
a perfect translucency from which it has derived the name of transparent 
cornea. This transparent coat is composed, in the main, of fibres with 
lyinph interspaces, and it is to the condition of these and their conden- 
sation and compression that the translucency is largely due. This may 
be shown by compressing with the fingers the eye of an ox which has just 

247 



248 

been killed, when the clear transparent cornea will suddenly become 
clouded over with a whitish blue opacity, and this will remain until the 
compression is interrupted. The interior of the eye contains three trans- 
parent media for the refraction of the rays of light, on their way from the 
cornea to the visual nerve. Of these media the anterior one (aqueous 
humor) is liquid, the posterior (vitreous humor) is semi-solid, and the 
intermediate one (crystalline lens) is solid. The space occupied by the 
aqueous humor corresponds nearly to the portion of the eye covered by 
the transparent cornea. It is, however, divided into two chambers, an- 
terior and posterior, by the iris, a contractile curtain with a hole in the 
center (the pupil), and which may be looked on as in some sense a projec- 
tion inward of the vascular and pigmentary coat from its anterior margin 
at the point where the sclerotic or opaque outer coat becomes continuous 
with the cornea or transparent one. This iris, or curtain, besides its 
abundance of blood-vessels and pigment, possesses two sets of muscular 
fibers, one set radiating from the margin of the pupil to the outer border 
of the curtain at its attach ment to the sclerotic and choroid, and the other 
encircling the pupil in the manner of a ring. The action of the two sets 
is necessarily antagonistic, the radiating fibers dilating the pupil and 
exposing the interior of the eye to view, while the circular fibers con- 
tract this opening and shut out the rays of light. The form of the pupil 
in the horse is ovoid, with its longest diameter from side to side and its 
upper border is fringed by several minute black bodies (corpora nigra) 
projecting forward and serving to some extent the purpose of eyebrows 
in arresting and absorbing the excess of rays of light which fall upon 
the eye from above. These pigmentary projections in front of the upper 
border .of the pupil are often mistaken for the products of disease or in- 
jury, in place of the normal and beneficient protectors of the nerve of 
sight which they are. They may, like all other parts, become the seat of 
disease, but so long as they and the iris retain their clear, dark aspect, 
without any tints of brown or yellow, they may be held to be healthy. 

The vitreous or semi-solid refracting medium occupies the posterior 
part of the eye — the part corresponding to the sclerotic, choroid, and 
retina — and has a consistency corresponding to that of the white of an 
egg, and a power of refraction of the light-rays correspondingly greater 
than the aqueous humor. 

The third or solid refracting medium is a biconvex lens, with its con- 
vexity greatest on its posterior surface, which is lodged in a depression 
in the vitreous humor, while its anterior surface corresponds to the 
opening of the pupil. It is inclosed in a membranous covering (cap- 
sule), and is maintained in position by a membrane (suspensory liga- 
ment) which extends from the margin of the lens outward to the scle- 
rotic at the point of junction of the choroid and iris. This ligament is, 
in its turn, furnished with radiating muscular fibers, which change the 
form or position of the lens so as to adapt it to see with equal clearness 
objects at a distance or close by. 



249 

Another point which strikes the observer of the horse's eye is that in 
the darkness a bright bluish tinge is reflected from the widely-dilated 
pupil. This is owing to a comparative absence of pigment in the cho- 
roid coat inside the upper part of the eyeball, and enables the animal 
to see and advance with security in darkness where the human eye 
would be of little use. The lower part of the cavity of the horse's eye, 
into which the dazzling rays fall from the sky, is furnished with an in- 
tensely black lining, by which the rays penetrating the inner nervous 
layer are instantly absorbed. 

MUSCLES OF THE EYE. 

These consist of four straight muscles, two oblique and one retractor. 
The straight muscles pass from the depth of the orbit forward on the 
inner, outer, upper, and lower sides of the eyeball, and are fixed to the 
anterior portion of the fibrous (sclerotic) coat, so that in contracting 
singly they respectively turn the eye inward, outward, upward, and 
downward. When all act together they draw the eyeball deeply into 
its socket. The retractor muscle also consists of four muscular slips, 
repeating the straight muscles on a smaller scale, but as they are only 
attached on the back part of the eyeball they are less adapted to roll 
the eye than to draw it down into its socket. The two oblique muscles 
rotate the eye on its own axis, the upper one turning its outer surface 
upward and inward, and the lower one turning it downward and inward. 

THE HAW — THE WINKING CARTILAGE— CARTILAGO NICTATANS. 

This is a structure, which, like the retractor muscle, is not found in 
the eye of man, but it serves in the lower animals to assist in removing 
foreign bodies from the front of the eyeball. It consists, in the horse, 
of a cartilage of irregular form, thickened inferiorly and posteriorly 
where it is intimately connected with the muscles of the eyeball, and 
the fatty material around them ; and expanded and flattened anteriorly 
where its upper surface is concave, and, as it were, moulded on the 
lower and inner surface of the eyeball. Externally, it is covered by the 
mucous membrane which lines the eyelids and extends over the front 
of the eye. In the ordinary restful state of the eye the edge of this 
cartilage should just appear as a thin fold of membrane at the inner 
angle of the eye, but when the eyeball is drawn deeply into the orbit 
the cartilage is pushed forward, outward, and upward over it until the 
entire globe may be hidden from sight. This protrusion of the carti- 
lage, so as to cover the eye, may be induced in the healthy eye by 
pressing the finger and thumb on the upper and lower lids, so as to cause 
retraction of the eyeball into its socket. When foreign bodies, such 
as sand, dust, and chaff, or other irritants, have fallen on the eyeball or 
eyelids, it is similarly projected to push them off, their expulsion being 
further favored by a profuse flow of tears. 



250 

This is seen, to a lesser extent, in all painful inflammations of the eye, 
and to a very marked degree in lockjaw, when the spasm of the muscles 
of the eyeball draws the latter deeply into the orbit and projects for- 
ward the masses of fat and the cartilage. The brutal practice of cut- 
ting off this apparatus, whenever it is projected, necessitates this ex- 
planation which, it is hoped, may save to many a faithful servant a 
most valuable appendage. That the cartilage and membrane may be- 
come the seat of disease is undeniable, but so long as its edge is thin 
and even, and its surface smooth and regular, the mere fact of its pro- 
jection over a portion or the whole of the eyeball is no evidence of 
disease in its substance, nor any warrant for its removal. It is usually 
but the evidence of the presence of some pain in another part of the 
eye, which the suffering animal endeavors to assuage by the use of this 
beneficient provision. For the diseases of the cartilage itself see 
" Eucephaloid Cancer." 

LACHRYMAL APPARATUS. 

This consists, first, of a gland for the secretion of the tears, and, sec- 
ond, of a series of canals for the conveyance of the superfluous tears 
into the cavity of the nose. 

The gland is situated above the outer part of the eyeball, and the 
tears which have flowed over the eye and reached the inner angle are 
there directed by a small conical papilla (lachrymal caruncle) into two 
minute orifices, aud thence by two ducts (lachrymal) to a small pouch 
(lachrymal sac) from which a canal leads through the bones of the face 
into the nose. This opens in the lower part of the nose on the floor of 
the passage, and a little outside the line of union of the skin which lines 
the false nostril with the mucous membrane of the nose. In the ass 
and mule this opening is situated on the roof instead of the floor of the 
nose, but still close to the external opening. 

EXAMINATION OF THE EYE. 

To avoid unnecessary repetition the following general directions are 
given for the examination of the eye: The eye, aud to a certain extent 
the mucous membrane lining the eyelids, may be exposed to view by 
gently parting the eyelids with the thumb and forefinger pressed on 
the middle of the respective lids. The pressure, it is true, causes the 
protrusion of the haw over a portion of tbe lower and inner part of the 
eye, but by gentleness and careful graduation of the pressure this may 
be kept within bounds, and oftentimes even the interior of the eye can 
be seen. As a rule it is best to use the right baud for the left eye, and 
the left baud for tbe right, the finger in each case being pressed on the 
upper lid while the thumb depresses the lower one. In cases in which 
it is desirable to examine the inner side of the eyelid farther than is 
possible by the above'means, tbe upper lid may be drawn down by the 
eyelashes with the one hand and then everted over the tip of the fore- 



251 

finger of the other hand, or over a probe laid flat against the middle of 
the lid. Where the interior of the eye must be examined it is useless 
to make the attempt in the open sunshine or under a clear sky. The 
worst cases, it is true, can be seen under such circumstances, but for 
the slighter forms the horse should be taken indoors, where all light 
from above will be shut off, and should be placed so that the light shall 
fall on the eye from the front and side. Then the observer, placing him- 
self in front of the animal, will receive the reflected rays from the cor- 
nea, the front of the lens and the back, and can much more easily detect 
any cloudiness, opacity, or lack of transparency. The examination 
can be made much more satisfactory by placing the horse in a dark 
chamber and illuminating the eye by a lamp placed forward and out- 
ward from the eye which is to be examined. Any cloudiness is thus 
easily detected, and any doubt may be resolved by moving the lamp so 
that the image of the flame may be passed in succession over the whole 
surface of the transparent cornea and of the crystalline lens. Three 
images of the flame will be seen, the larger one upright, reflected from 
the anterior surface of the eye ; a smaller one upright, reflected from 
the auterior surface of the lens; and a second small one inverted from 
the back surface of the lens. So long as these images are reflected 
from healthy surfaces they will be clear and perfect in outline, but, as 
soon as one strikes on an area of opacity, it will become diffused, cloudy, 
and indefinite. Thus, if the large upright image becomes hazy and im- 
perfect over a particular spot of the cornea, that will be found to be the 
seat of disease and opacity. Should the large image remain clear, but 
the small upright one become diffuse and indefinite over a given point, 
it indicates opacity on the front of the capsule of the lens. If both 
upright images remaiu clear, while the inverted one becomes indistinct 
at a given point, then the opacity is in the substance of the lens itself 
or in the posterior part of its capsule. 

If in a given case the pupil remains so closely contracted that the 
deeper parts of the eye can not be seen the eyelids may be rubbed with 
extract of belladonna, and in a short time the pupil will be found 
widely dilated. 

DISEASES OF THE EYELIDS. 

Congenital disorders. — Some faulty conditions of the eyelids are con- 
genital, as division of an eyelid in two, after the manner of harelip, ab- 
normally small opening between the lids, often conuected with imperfect 
development of the eye, and closure of the lids by adhesion. The first is 
to be remedied by paring the edges of the division and then bringing 
them together, as in torn lids. The last two, if remediable at all, re- 
quire separation by the knife, and subsequent treatment with a cooling 
astringent eye wash. 

Nervous disorders. — Spasm of the eyelids may be owing to constitutional 
susceptibility, or to the presence of local irritants (insects, chemical 



252 

irritants, sand, etc.) in the eye, to wounds or inflammation of the mucous 
membrane, or to disease of the brain. When due to local irritation, it 
may be temporarily overcome by instilling a few drops of a 4 per 
cent, solution of cocaine into the eye, when the true cause may be 
ascertained and removed. The nervous or constitutional disease must 
be treated according to its nature. 

Drooping eyelids— Ptosis. — This is usually present in the upper lid, or 
is at least little noticed in the lower. It is sometimes but a symptom of 
paralysis of one-half of the face, in which case the ear, lips, and nostrils 
on the same side will be found soft, drooping, and inactive, and even 
the half of the tongue may partake of the palsy. If the same condition 
exists on both sides there is difficult snuffling breathing, from the air 
drawing in the flaps of the nostrils in inspiration, and all food is taken 
in by the teeth, as the lips are useless. In both there is a free discbarge 
of saliva from the mouth during mastication. This paralysis is a fre- 
quent result of injury, by a poke, to the seventh nerve, as it passes over 
the back of the lower jaw. In some cases the paralysis is confined to 
the lid, the injury having been sustained by the muscles which raise it, 
or by the supra- orbital nerve which emerges from the bone just above 
the eye. Such injury to the nerve may have resulted from fracture of 
the orbital process of the frontal bone above the eye ball. 

The condition may, however, be due to spasm of the sphincter muscle, 
which closes the lids, or to inflammation of the upper lid, usually a re- 
sult of blows on the orbit. In the latter case it may run a slow course 
with chronic thickening of the lid. 

The paralysis due to the poke may be often remedied by, first, the 
removal of any remaining inflammation by a wet sponge worn beneath 
the ear and kept in place by a bandage ; second, when all inflammation 
has passed by a blister on the same region, or by rubbing it daily with 
a mixture in equal proportions of olive oil and strong aqua ammonia. 
Improvement is usually slow, and it may be months before complete 
recovery ensues. 

In paralysis from blows above the eyes the same treatment may be 
applied to that part. 

Thickening of the lid may be treated by painting with tincture of 
iodine, and that failing, by cutting out an ellipitical strip of the skin 
from the middle of the upper lid and stitching the edges together. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE EYELIDS. 

The eyelids suffer more or less in all severe inflammations of the eye, 
whether external or internal, but inasmuch as the disease sometimes 
starts in the lids and at other times is exclusively confined to them, it 
deserves independent mention. 

Among the causes may be named: exposure to draughts of cold air, 
or to cold rain or snow-storms; the bites or stings of mosquitoes, flies, 



253 

and other insects ; snake-bites, pricks with thorns, blows of whip or club; 
accidental bruises against the stall or ground, especially during the vio- 
lent struggles of colic, enteritis, phrenitis (staggers), and when thrown 
for operations. It is also a result of infecting inoculations, as of ery- 
sipelas, anthrax, boil, etc., and is noted by Leblanc as especially preva- 
lent among horses kept on low marshy pastures. Finally, the introduc- 
tion of sand, dust, chaff, beards of barley and seeds of the finest grasses, 
and the contact with irritant chemical powders, liquids, and gases (am- 
monia from manure or factory, chlorine, strong sulphur fumes, smoke, 
and other products of combustion, etc.), may start the inflammation. 
The eyelids often undergo extreme inflammatory and dropsical swelling 
in urticaria (nettlerash, surfeit), and in the general inflammatory dropsy 
known as purpura hemorrhagica. 

The affection will, therefore, readily divide itself into (1), inflamma- 
tions due to constitutional causes; (2), those due to direct injury, me- 
chanical or chemical; and (3), such as are due to inoculation with in- 
fecting material. 

(1) Inflammations due to constitutional causes are distinguished by 
the absence of any local wound, and the history of a low damp pasture, 
exposure, indigestion from unwholesome food, or the presence elsewhere 
on the limbs or body of the general doughy swellings of purpura 
hemorrhagica. The lids are swollen and thickened, it may be slightly 
or it may be so extremely that the eye ball can not be seen. If the lid 
can be everted to show its mucous membrane, that is seen to be of a 
deep red color, especially along the branching lines of the blood vessels. 
The part is hot and painful, and a profuse flow of tears and mucus 
escapes on the side of the face, causing irritation and loss of the hair. 
If improvement follows, this discharge becomes more tenacious, and 
tends to cause adhesion of the edges of the upper and lower lids and 
to mat together the eyelashes in bundles. This gradually decreases to 
the natural amount, and the redness and congested appearance of the 
eyes disappears, but swelling, thickening, and stiffness of the lids may 
continue for a length of time. There may be more or less fever accord- 
ing to the violence of the inflammation, but so long as there is no serious 
disease of the interior of the eye or of other vital organ this is usually 
moderate. 

The local treatment consists in astringent, soothing lotions (sugar of 
lead 30 grains, laudanum 2 teaspoonsful, rain water — boiled and cooled — 
1 pint), applied with a soft cloth kept wet with the lotion, and hung over 
the eye by tying it to the headstall of the bridle on the two sides. If 
the mucous membrane lining the lids is the seat of little red granular 
elevations, a drop of a solution of 2 grains of nitrate of silver in an ounce 
of distilled water should be applied with the soft end of a clean feather 
to the inside of the lid twice a day. The patient should be removed 
from all such conditions (pasture, faulty food, exposure, etc.) as may 
have caused or aggravated the disease, and from dust and irritant 



254 

fumes and gases. He should be fed from a manger high enough to favor 
the return of blood from the head, and should be kept from work, 
especially in a tight collar, which would prevent the descent of blood 
by the jugular veins. His diet should be laxative and nou- stimulating 
(grass, bran mashes, carrots, turnips, beets, potatoes, or steamed hay), 
and any costiveness should be corrected by a mild dose of linseed oil (1 
to 1£ pints). In cold weather warm blanketing may be needful, and 
even loose flannel bandages to the limbs, and heat should never be 
sought at the expense of pure air. 

(2) In inflammations due to local irritants of a non-infective kind, a 
careful examination will usually reveal their presence, and the first step 
must be their removal with a pair of blunt forceps or the point of a lead 
pencil. Subsequent treatment will be in the main the local treatment 
advised above. 

(3) In case of infective inflammation, there will often be found a prick 
or tear by which the septic matter has entered, and in such case the 
inflammation will for a time be concentrated at that point. A round 
or conical swelling round an insect bite is especially characteristic. A 
snake bite is marked by the double prick made by the two teeth and 
by the violent and rapidly spreading inflammation. Erysipelas is at- 
tended with much swelling, extending beyond the lids, and causing the 
mucous membrane to protrude beyond the edge of the eyelid (chemosis). 
This is characterized by a bright, uniform, rosy red, disappearing on 
pressure, or later by a dark, livid hue, but with less branching redness 
than in nouinfecting inflammation, and less of the dark, dusky, brown- 
ish or yellowish tint of anthrax. Little vesicles may appear on the 
skin, and pus may be found without any distinct limiting membrane, as 
iu abscess. It is early attended by high fever and marked general 
weakness and iuappetence. Anthrax of the lids is marked by a firm 
swelling, surmounted by a blister, with bloody serous contents, which 
tends to burst and dry up into a slough, while the surrounding parts 
become involved in the same way. Or it may show as a diffuse dropsi- 
cal swelling, with less of the hard central sloughing nodule, but like 
that tending to spread quickly. In both cases alike the mucous mem- 
brane and the skin, if white, assume a dusky brown or yellowish brown 
hue, which is largely characteristic. This may pass into a black color 
by reason of the extravasation of blood. There appears early great 
constitutional disturbance, with much prostration and weakness and 
generalized anthrax symptoms. 

The treatment of these will vary according to the severity. Insect 
bites may be touched with a solution of equal parts of glycerine and 
aqua ammonia, or a 10 per cent, solution of carbolic acid in water. 
Snake bites may be bathed with aqua ammonia, and the same agent 
given in doses of 2 teaspoonfuls in a quart of water. Or alcohol may 
be given in pint or quart doses, according to the size of the animal. In 
erysipelas the skin may be painted with tincture of muriate of iron, or 



255 

with a solution of 20 grains of iodine in an ounce of carbolic acid, and 
one-half an ounce of tincture of muriate ot iron may be given thrice 
daily in a bottle of water. Iu anthrax the swelling should be painted 
with tincture of iodine, or of the mixture of iodine and carbolic acid, 
and if very threatening it may have the tincture of iodine injected into 
the swelling with a hypodermic syringe, or the hard mass may be freely 
incised to its depth with a sharp lancet and the lotion applied to the 
exposed tissues. Internally iodide of potassium may be given in doses 
of 2 drams thrice a day, or tincture of the muriate of iron every four 
hours. 

STYE — FURUNCLE (BOIL) OF THE EYELID. 

This is an inflammation of limited extent, advancing to the formation 
of matter and the sloughing out of a small mass of the natural tissue 
of the eyelid. It forms a firm, rounded swelling, usually near the mar- 
gin of the lid, which suppurates and bursts in four or five days. Its 
course may be hastened by a poultice of chamomile flowers, to which 
have been added a few drops of carbolic acid, the whole applied in a 
very thin muslin bag. If the swelling is slow to open after having be- 
come yellowish- white, it may be opened by a lancet, the incision being 
made at right angles to the margin of the lid. 

ENTROPION AND ECTROPION — INVERSION AND EVERSION OF THE EYE 

LID. 

These are respectively caused by wounds, sloughs, ulcers, or other 
causes of loss of substance of the mucous membrane on the inside of 
the lid and of the skin on the outside ; also of tumors, skin diseases, or 
paralysis which leads to displacement of the margin of the eyelid. As 
a rule they require a surgical operation, with removal of an eliptical 
portion of the mucous membrane or skin, as the case maybe, but which 
requires the skilled and delicate hand of the surgeon. 

TRICHIASIS. 

This consists in the turning in of the eyelashes so as to irritate the 
front of the eye. If a single eyelash, it may be snipped off with scis- 
sors close to the margin of the eyelid, or pulled out by the root with 
a pair of flat-bladed forceps. If the divergent lashes are more numer- 
ous the treatment may be as for entropion by excising an elliptical por- 
tion of skin opposite the offending lashes, and stitching the edges 
together, so as to draw outward the margin of the lid at that point. 

WARTS AND OTHER TUMORS OF THE EYELIDS. 

The eyelids form a favorite site for tumors, and above all, warts, which 
consist in a simple diseased overgrowth (hypertrophy) of the surface 
layers of the skin. If small, these may be snipped off with scissors. 



256 

or tied around the neck with a stout waxed thread and left to drop off. 
the destruction being completed, it* necessary, by the daily application 
of a piece of sulphate of copper (blue vitriol), until any unhealthy ma- 
terial has been removed. If more widely spread the wart may still be 
clipped off with curved scissors or knife, and the caustic thoroughly 
applied day by day. 

A bleeding wart or erectile tumor is more liable to bleed, and is best 
removed by constricting its neck with the waxed cord or rubber band, 
or if too broad for this it may be transfixed through its base by a nee- 
dle armed with a double thread, which is then to be cut in two and tied 
around the two portions of the neck of the tumor. If still broader the 
armed needle may be carried through the base of the tumor at regu- 
lar intervals, so that the whole may be tied in moderately sized sec- 
tions. 

In gray and white horses black pigmentary tumors (melanotic) are 
common on the black portions of skin, such as the eyelids, and are to 
be removed by scissors or knife, according to their size. In the horse 
these do not usually tend to recur when thoroughly removed, but at 
times they prove cancerous (as is the rule in man), and then they tend 
to reappear in the same site or in internal organs with, it may be, fatal 
effect. 

Encysted, honey-like (melicerous), sebaceous, and fibrous tumors of 
the lids all require removal with the knife. 

TORN EYELIDS— WOUNDS OF EYELIDS. 

The eyelids are torn by attacks with horns of cattle, or with the teeth, 
or by getting caught on nails in stall rack or manger, on the point of 
stump fences or fence rails, on the barbs of wire-fences and on other 
pointed bodies. The edges should be brought together as promptly as 
possible, so as to secure union without the formation of matter, puck- 
ering of the skin, and unsightly distortions. Great care is necessary 
to bring the two edges together evenly without twisting or puckering. 
The simplest mode of holding thein together is by a series of sharp pins 
passed through the lips of the wound at intervals of not over a third of 
an inch, and held together by a thread twisted around each pin in the 
form of the figure 8, and carried obliquely from pin to pin in two direc- 
tions, so as to prevent gaping of the wound in the intervals. The points 
of the pins may then be cut off with scissors, and the wound may be 
wet twice a day with a weak solution of carbolic acid. 

TUMOR OF THE HAW— CARIES OF THE CARTILAGE. 

Though cruelly excised for alleged "hooks," when itself perfectly 
healthy in the various diseases which lead to retraction of the eye into 
its socket, the haw may, like other bodily structures, be itself the seat 
of actual disease. The pigmentary black tumors of white horses and 



257 

soft (encephaloid) cancer may attack this part primarily or extend to 
it from the eyeball or eyelids; hairs have been found growing from its 
surface; and the mucous membrane covering it becomes inflamed in 
common with that covering the front of the eye. These inflammations 
are but a phase of the inflammation of the external structures of the 
eye, and demand no particular notice nor special treatment. The 
tumors lead to such irregular enlargement and distortion of the haw 
that the condition is not to be confounded with the simple projection of 
the healthy structure over the eye when the lids are pushed apart with 
the finger and thumb, and the same remark applies to the ulceration or 
caries of the cartilage. In the latter case, besides the swelling and 
distortion of the haw, there is this peculiarity, that in the midst of the 
red inflamed mass there appears a white line or mass formed by the 
exposed edge of the ulcerating cartilage. The animal having been 
thrown and properly fixed, an assistant holds the eyelids apart while 
the operator seizes the haw with forceps or hook and carefully dissects 
it out with blunt-pointed scissors. The eye is then covered with a 
cloth kept wet with an eye wash, as for external ophthalmia. 

OBSTRUCTION OF THE LACHRYMAL APPARATUS — WATERING EYE. 

The escape of tears on the side of the cheek is a symptom of external 
inflammation of the eye, but it may also occur from any disease of the 
lachrymal apparatus which interferes with the normal progress of the 
tears to the nose. Hence, in all cases when this symptom is not at- 
tended by special redness or swelling of the eyelids, it is well to exam- 
iug the lachrymal apparatus. In some instances the orifice of the lach- 
rymal duct on the floor of the nasal chamber and close to its anterior 
outlet will be found blocked by a portion of dry muco purulent matter, 
on the removal of which tears may begin to escape. This implies an 
inflammation of tbe canal, which may behelped by occasional sponging 
out of the nose with warm water, and the application of the same on 
the face. Another remedy is to feed warm mashes of wheat bran from 
a nose-bag, so that the relaxing effects of the water vapor may be 
secured. 

The two lachrymal openings, situated at the inner angle of the eye, 
may fail to admit the tears by reason of their deviation outward in con- 
nection with eversiou of the lower lid, or by reason of their constriction 
in inflammation of the mucous membrane. The lachrymal sac, into which 
the lachrymal ducts open, may fail to discharge its contents by reason of 
constriction or closure of the duct leading to the nose, and it then forms 
a rounded swelling beneath the inner angle of the eye. The duct lead- 
ing from the sac to the nose may be compressed or obliterated by fract- 
ures of the bones of the face, and in disease of these bones (osteosar- 
coma, so-called osteoporosis, diseased teeth, glanders of the nasal sinuses, 
abscess of the same cavities). 
11035 17 



258 

The narrowed or obstructed ducts may be made pervious by a fine 
silver probe passed down to the lachrymal sac, and any existing inflam- 
mation of the passages may be counteracted by the use of steaming 
mashes of wheat bran, by fomentations or wet cloths over the face, and 
even by the use of astringent eye washes and the injection of similar 
liquids into the lachrymal canal from its nasal opening. The ordinary 
eye wash may be used for this purpose, or it may be injected after di- 
lution to half its strength. The fractures and diseases of the bones aud 
teeth must be treated according to their special demands when, if the 
canal is still left pervious, it may be again rendered useful. 

EXTERNAL OPHTHALMIA— CONJUNCTIVITIS. 

In inflammation of the outer parts of the eye ball the exposed vas- 
cular and sensitive mucous membrane (conjunctiva) which covers the 
ball, the eyelids, the haw, and the- lachrymal apparatus, is usually the 
most deeply involved, yet adjacent parts are more or less implicated, 
and when disease is concentrated on these contiguous parts it consti- 
tutes a phase of external ophthalmia which demands a special notice. 
These have accordingly been already treated of. 

The causes of external ophthalmia are mainly those that act locally — 
blows with whips, clubs, and twigs, the presence of foreign bodies like 
hay-seed, chaff, dust, lime, sand, snuff, pollen of plants, flies attracted by 
the brilliancy of the eye, wounds of the bridle, the migration of the 
scabies (mange) insect into the eye, smoke, ammonia rising from the 
excretions, irritant emanations from drying marshes, etc. A very dry 
air is alleged to act injuriously by drying the eye as well as by favoring 
the production of irritant dust; and the undue exposure to bright sun- 
shine through a window in front of the stall, or to the reflection from 
snow or water, is undoubtedly injurious. The unprotected exposure of 
the eyes to sunshine through the use of a very short overdraw check is 
to be condemned, and the keeping of the horse in a very dark stall from 
which it is habitually led into the glare of full sunlight, intensified by 
reflection from snow or white limestone dust, must be set down among 
the locally acting causes. But exposure to cold and wet, to rain and 
suow storms, to cold draughts and wet lairs must also be accepted as 
causes of conjunctivitis, the general disorder which they produce affect- 
ing the eye, if that happens to be the weakest and most susceptible 
organ of the body, or if it has been subjected to any special local injury 
like dust, irritant gases, or excess of light. Again, external ophthalmia 
is a constant concomitant of inflammation of the contiguous and contin- 
uous mucous membranes, as those of the nose and throat. Hence the 
red watery eyes that attend on nasal catarrh, sore throat, influenza, 
strangles, nasal glanders, and the like. In such cases, however, the 
affection of the eye is subsidiary and is manifestly overshadowed by the 
primary and predominating disease. 



259 

The symptoms are watering of the eye, swollen lids, redness of the 
mucous membrane exposed by the separation of the lids — it may be a 
mere pink blush with more or less branching redness, or it may be a 
deep, dark red, as from effusion of blood — and a bluish opacity of the 
cornea which is normally clear and translucent. But except when re- 
sulting from wounds and actual extravasation of blood, the redness is 
seen to be superficial, and if the opacity is confined to the edges, and 
doesnotinvolve the entire cornea the aqueous humor behindisseen to be 
still clear and limpid. The fever is always less severe than in internal 
ophthalmia, and only runs high in the worst cases. The eyelids may 
be kept closed, the eye ball retracted, and the haw protruded over one- 
third or one-half of the ball, but this is due to the pain only and not to 
any excessive sensibility to light, as shown by the comparatively widely 
dilated pupil. In internal ophthalmia, on the contrary, the narrow 
contracted pupil is the measure of the pain caused by the falling of 
light on the inflamed and sensitive optic nerve (retina) and choroid. 

If the affection has resulted from a wound of the cornea, not only is 
that the point of greatest opacity, forming a white speck or fleecy cloud, 
but too often blood-vessels begin to extend from the adjacent vascular 
covering of the eye (sclerotic) to the white spot, and that portion of 
the cornea is rendered permanently opaque. Again, if the wound has 
been severe, though still short of cutting into the anterior layers of the 
cornea, the injury may lead to ulceration which may penetrate more or 
less deeply and leave a breach in the tissue which, if filled up at all, is 
repaired by opaque fibrous tissue in place of the transparent cellular 
structure. Pus may form, and the cornea assumes a yellowish tinge 
and bursts, giving rise to a deep sore which is liable to extend as an 
ulcer, and may be in its turn followed by bulging of the cornea at that 
point (staphyloma). This inflammation of the conjunctiva may be 
simply catarrhal, with profuse muco-purulent discharge; it may be 
granular, the surface being covered with minute reddish elevations, or 
it may become the seat of a false membrane (diphtheria). 

In treating external ophthalmia the first object is the removal of the 
cause. Remove any dust, chaff, thorn, or other foreign body from the 
conjunctiva, purify the stable from all sources of ammouiacal or other 
irritant gas ; keep the horse from dusty roads, and above all from the 
proximity of a leading wagon and its attendant cloud of dust ; remove 
from pasture and feed from a rack which is neither so high as to drop 
seeds, etc., into the eyes nor so low as to favor the accumulation of 
blood in the head ; avoid equally excess of light from a sunny window 
in front of the stall and excess of darkness from the absence of win- 
dows ; preserve from cold draughts and rains and wet bedding, and ap- 
ply curative measures for inflammation of the adjacent mucous mem- 
branes or skin. Ef the irritant has been of a caustic nature remove 
any remnant of it by persistent bathing with tepid water and a soft 
sponge, or with water mixed with white of egg, or a glass filled with 



260 

the liquid may be inverted over the eye so that its contents may dilute 
and remove the irritant. If the suffering is very severe a lotion with 
a few grains of extract of belladonna or of morphia in an ounce of 
water may be applied, or if it is available a few drops of 4 per cent, 
solution of cocaine may be instilled into the eye. 

In strong, vigorous patients benefit will usually be obtained from a 
laxative, such as 2 tablespoonfuls of Glauber's salts daily, and if the 
fever runs high from a daily dose of half an ounce of saltpeter. As 
local applications astringent solutions are usually the best, as 30 grains 
of borax or of sulphate of zinc in a quart of water, to be applied con- 
stantly on a cloth, as advised, under inflammation of the eyelids. In 
the absence of anything better cold water may serve every purpose. 
Above all, adhesive and oily agents (molasses, sugar, fats) are to be 
avoided, as only adding to the irritation. By way of suggesting agents 
that may be used with good effect, salt and sulphate of soda may be 
named, in solutions double the strength of sulphate of zinc, or 7 grains 
of nitrate of silver may be added to a quart of distilled water, and 
will be found especially applicable in granular conjunctivitis, diph- 
theria, or commencing ulceration. A cantharides blister (1 part of 
Spanish fly to 4 parts lard) may be rubbed on the side of the face 3 
inches below the eye, and washed off next morning with soap-suds and 
oiled daily till the scabs are dropped. 

WHITE SPECKS AND CLOUDINESS OF THE CORNEA. 

As a result of external ophthalmia, opaque specks, clouds, or haziness 
are too often left on the cornea and require for their removal that 
they be daily touched with a soft feather dipped in a solution of 3 
grains nitrate of silver in 1 ounce distilled water. This should be 
applied until all inflammation has subsided, and until its contact is 
comparatively painless. It is rarely successful with an old thick scar 
following an ulcer, nor with an opacity haviug red blood-vessels running 
across it. 

ULCERS OF THE CORNEA. 

These maybe treated with nitrate of silver lotion of twice the strength 
used for opacities. Powdered gentian, one half ounce, and sulphate of 
iron, one-fourth ounce daily, may improve the general health and increase 
the reparatory power. 

INTERNAL OPHTHALMIA — IRITIS — CHOROIDITIS — RETINITIS. 

Although inflammations of the iris, choroid, and retina, the inner vas- 
cular and nervous coats of the eye occur to a certain extent independ- 
ently of each other, yet one usually supervenes upon the other, and 
as the symptoms are thus made to coincide it will be best for our pres- 
ent purposes to treat the three as one disease. 



261 

The causes of internal ophthalmia are largely those of the external form 
only, acting with greater intensity or on a more susceptible eye. Severe 
blows, bruises, punctures, etc., of the eye, the penetration of foreign 
bodies into the eye (thorns, splinters of iron, etc.), sudden transition 
from a dark stall to bright sunshine, to the glare of snow or water, con- 
stant glare from a sunny wiudow, abuse of the overdraw check-rein, 
vivid lightning flashes, draughts of cold, damp air; above all, when the 
animal is perspiring, exposure in cold rain and snowstorms, swimming 
cold rivers, also certain general diseases like rheumatism, arthritis, in- 
fluenza, and disorders of the digestive organs, may become complicated 
by this affection. From the close relation between the brain and eye — 
alike in the blood vessels and nerves — disorders of the first lead to 
affections of the second, and the same remark applies to the persistent 
irritation to which the jaws are subjected in the course of dentition. So 
potent is the last agency that we dread a recurrence of ophthalmia so 
long as dentition is incomplete, and hope for immunity if the animal 
completes its dentition without any permanent structural change in the 
eye. 

The symptoms will vary according to the cause. If the attack is due 
to direct physical injury the inflammation of the eyelids and superficial 
structures may be quite as marked as that of the interior of the eye. 
If, on the other hand, from general causes, or as a complication of some 
distant disease, the affection may be largely confined to the deeper 
structures, and the swelling, redness, and tenderness of the superficial 
structures will be less marked. When the external coats thus compar- 
atively escape the extreme anterior edge of the white or sclerotic coat 
where it overlaps the border of the transparent cornea is in a meas- 
ure free from congestion, and, in the absence of the obscuring dark 
pigment, forms a whitish ring around the cornea. This is partly due 
to the fact that a series of arteries (ciliary) passing to the inflamed iris 
penetrate the sclerotic coat a short distance behind its anterior border, 
and there is therefore a marked difference in color between the general 
sclerotic occupied by these congested vessels and the anterior rim 
from which they are absent. Unfortunately the pigment is often so 
abundant in the anterior part of the sclerotic as to hide this symptom. 
In internal ophthalmia the opacity of the cornea may be confined to 
a zone around the outer margin of the cornea, and even this may be a 
bluish haze rather than a deep fleecy white. In consequence it becomes 
possible to see the interior of the chamber for the aqueous humor and 
the condition of the iris and pupil. The aqueous humor is usually tur- 
bid, and has numerous yellowish white flakes floating on its substance 
or deposited in the lower part of the chamber, so as to cut off the view 
of the lower portion of the iris. The still visible portion of the iris has 
lost its natural, clear dark luster, which is replaced by a brownish or 
y el to wish sere-leaf color. This is more marked in proportion as the 
iris is inflamed, and less so as the intiammatiou is confined to thecho- 



262 

roid. The amount of flocculeut deposit in the chamber of the aqueous 
humor is also in direct ratio to the inflammation of the iris. Perhaps 
the most marked feature of internal ophthalmia is the extreme and 
painful sensitiveness to light. On this account the lids are usually 
closed, but when opened the pupil is seen to be narrowly closed even if 
the animal has been kept in an obscured stall. Exceptions to this are 
seen when inflammatory effusion has overfilled the globe of the eye, and 
by pressure on the retina has paralyzed it, or when the exudation into 
the substance of the retina itself has similarly led to its paralysis. Then 
the pupil may be dilated, and frequently its margin loses its regular 
ovoid outline and becomes uneven by reason of the adhesions which it 
has contracted with the capsule of the lens, through its inflammatory 
exudations. In the case of excessive effusion into the globe of the eye 
that is found to have become tense and hard so that it can not be in- 
dented with the tip of the finger. With such paralysis of the retina, 
vision is heavily clouded or entirely lost, hence in spite of the open 
pupil the finger may be approached to the eye without the animal be- 
coming conscious of it until it touches the surface, and if the nose on 
the affected side is gently struck and a feint made to repeat the blow 
the patient makes no effort to evade it. Sometimes the edges of the con- 
tracted pupil become adherent to each other by an intervening plastic 
exudation, and the opening becomes virtually abolished. In severe in. 
flammations pus may form in the choroid or iris, and escaping into the 
cavity of the aqueous humor show as a yellowish white stratum below. 
In nearly all cases there is resulting exudation into the lens or its cap- 
sule, constituting a cloudiness or opacity (cataract), which in severe 
and old standing cases appears as a white fleecy mass behind a widely 
dilated pupil. In the slighter cases cataract is to be recognized by ex- 
amination of the eye in a dark chamber, with an oblique side light as 
described in the introduction to this article. Cataracts that appear as 
a simple haze or indefinite fleecy cloud are usually on the capsule (cap- 
sular), while those that show a radiating arrangement are in the lens 
(lenticular), the radiating fibers of which the exudate follows. Black 
cataracts are formed by the adhesion of the pigment on the back of the 
iris to the front of the lens, and by the subsequent tearing loose of the 
iris, leaving a portion of its pigment adherent to the capsule of the lens. 
If the pupil is so contracted that it is impossible to see the lens, it may 
be dilated by applying to the front of the eye with a feather some drops 
of a solution of 4 grains of atropia in an ounce of water. 

The treatment of internal ophthalmia should embrace first the removal 
of all existing causes, or sources of aggravation, of the disease, which 
need not be here repeated. Special care to protect the patient against 
cold, wet, strong light, aud active exertion, must, however, be specially 
insisted on. A dark stall, and a cloth hung over the eye, are important, 
while cleanliness, warmth, dryness, and rest are equalfv demanded. If 
the patient is strong and vigorous a dose of 4 drams of Barbadoes aloes 



2G3 

may be given, and, if there is any reason to suspect a rheumatic origin, 
one-half a dram powdered colchicnm and one-half ounce salicylate of 
soda may be given daily. Locally the astringent lotions advised for 
external ophthalmia may be resorted to, especially when the superficial 
inflammation is well marked. More important, however, is to instill 
into the eye, a few drops at a time, a solution of 4 grains of atropia in 
1 ounce distilled water. This may be effected with the aid of a soft 
feather, and may be repeated at intervals of ten minutes until the pupil 
is widely dilated. As the horse is to be kept in a dark stall the con- 
sequent admission of light will be harmless, and the dilation of the 
pupil prevents adhesions between the iris and lens, relieves the con- 
stant tension of the eye in the effort to adapt the pupil to the light, 
and solicits the contraction of the blood vessels of the eye and the les- 
sening of congestion, exudation, and intraocular pressure. Should 
atropia not agree with the case, it may be replaced by morphia (same 
strength) or cocaine, in 4 per cent, solution. Another local measure is 
a blister, which can usually be applied to advantage on the side of the 
nose or beneath the ear. Spanish flies may be used as for external 
ophthalmia. In very severe cases the parts beneath the eye may be 
shaved and three or four leeches applied. Setous are sometimes bene- 
ficial, and even puncture of the eye-ball, but these should be reserved 
for professional hands. 

The diet throughout should be easily digestible and moderate in 
quautity — bran mashes, middlings, grass, steamed hay, etc. 

Even after the active inflammation has subsided the atropia lotion 
should be continued for some weeks to keep the eye in a state of rest in 
its still weak and irritable condition, and during this period the patient 
should be kept in semi-darkness, or taken out only with a dark shade 
over the eye. For the same reason heavy draughts and rapid paces, 
which would cause congestion of the head, should be carefully avoided. 

RECURRENT OPHTHALMIA — PERIODIC OPHTHALMIA — MOONBLLND- 

NESS. 

This is an inflammatory affection of the interior of the eye, intimately 
related to certain soils, climates, and systems, showing a strong ten- 
dency to recur again and again and usually ending in blindness from 
cataract or other serious injury. 

Its causes may be fundamentally attributed to soil. On damp clays 
and marshy grounds, on the frequently overflowed river bottoms and 
deltas, on the coasts of seas and lakes alternately submerged and ex- 
posed, this disease prevails extensively, and in many instances in France 
(Reynal), Belgium, Alsace (Zundel Milteuberger), Germany, and Eng- 
land it has very largely decreased under land drainage and improved 
methods of culture. Other influences, more or less associated with such 
soil, are potent causative factors. Thus damp air and a cloudy, wet 



264 

climate, so constantly associated with wet lands, are universally 
charged with causing the disease. These act on the animal body to 
produce a lymphatic constitution with an excess of connective tissue, 
bones, and muscles of coarse open texture, thick skins and gummy legs 
covered with a profusion of long hair. Hence the heavy horses of Bel- 
gium and southwestern France have suffered severely from the affec- 
tion, while high dry lands adjacent, like Catalonia in Spain, and Dauph- 
iuy, Provence, and Languedoc, in France, have in the main escaped. 

The rank aqueous fodders grown on such soils are other causes, but 
these again are calculated to undermine the characters of the nerv- 
ous and sanguineous temperament, and to superinduce the lymphatic. 
Other foods act by leading to constipation and other disorders of the 
digestive organs, thus impairing the general health ; hence in any ani- 
mal predisposed to this disease, heating, starchy foods, such as maize, 
wheat, and buckwheat are to be carefully avoided. It has been widely 
charged that beans, peas, vetches, and other legumiuosa are dangerous, 
but a fuller inquiry contradicts this. If these are well grown they in- 
vigorate and fortify the system, while like any other fodder if grown 
rank, aqueous, and deficient in assimilable principles they tend to lower 
the health and open the way for the disease. 

The period of dentition and training is a fertile excitiug cause, for 
though the malady may appear at any time from birth to old age, yet 
the great majority of victims are from two to six years old, and if a 
horse escapes the affection till after six there is a reasonable hope that 
he will continue to resist it. The irritation about the head during the 
eruption of the teeth, and while fretting in the unwonted bridle and 
collar, the stimulating grain diet and the close air of the stable all com- 
bine to rouse the latent tendency to disease in the eye, while direct 
injuries by bridle, whip, or hay-seeds are not without their influence. 

In the same way local irritants like dust, severe rain and snow- 
storms, smoke and acrid vapors are contributing causes. 

It is evident, however, that no one of these is sufficient of itself to 
produce the disease, and it has been alleged that the true cause is a 
microbe, or the irritant products of a microbe, which is harbored in the 
marshy soil. The prevalence of the disease on the same damp soils 
which produce ague in man and anthrax in cattle has been quoted in 
support of this doctrine, as also the fact that the malady is always 
more prevalent cceteris paribus in basins surrounded by hills where 
the air is still and such products are concentrated, and that a forest or 
simple belt of trees will, as in ague, at times limit the area of its prev- 
alence. Another argument for the same view is found in the fact that 
on certain farms irrigated by town sewage this malady has become 
extremely prevalent, the sewage being assumed to form a suitable 
nidus for the growth of the germ. But on these sewage farms a fresh 
crop may be cut every fortuight, and the product is precisely that aque- 
ous material which contributes to a lymphatic structure and a low tone 



265 

of health. The presence in the system of a definite germ has not yet 
been proven, and in the present state of our knowledge we are o«ly 
warrauted in charging the disease on the deleterious emanations from 
the marshy soil in which bacterial ferments are constantly producing 
them. 

Heredity is one of the most potent causes. The lymphatic constitu- 
tion is of course transmitted and with it the proclivity to recurring 
ophthalmia. This is notorious in the case of both parents, male and 
female. The tendency appears to be stronger, however, if either parent 
has already suffered. Thus a mare may have borne a number of sound 
foals, and then fallen a victim to this malady, aud ail foals subsequently 
borne have likewise suffered. So with the stallion. Reynal even 
quotes the appearance of the disease in alternate generations, the 
stallion offspring of blind parents remaining sound through life and yet 
producing foals which furnish numerous victims of recurrent ophthal- 
mia. On the contrary, the offspring of diseased parents removed to 
high, dry regions and furnished with wholesome, nourishing rations, will 
nearly all escape. Hence the dealers take colts that are still sound 
or have had but one attack from the affected low Pyrenees (France) to 
the unaffected Catalonia (Spain), with confidence that they will escape, 
and from the Jura Valley to Dauphiny with the same result. 

Yet the hereditary taint is so strong and pernicious that intelligent 
horsemen everywhere refuse to breed from either horse or mare that 
has once suffered from recurrent ophthalmia, and the French Govern- 
ment studs not only reject all unsound stallions, but refuse service to 
any mare which has suffered with her eyes. It is this avoidance of the 
hereditary predisposition more than anything else that has reduced the 
formerly wide prevalence of this disease in the European countries gen- 
erally. A consideration for the future of our horses would demand the 
disuse of all sires that are unlicensed, and the refusal of a license to 
any sire which has suffered from this or ony other communicable con- 
stitutional disease. 

Other contributing causes deserve passing mention. Unwholesome 
food and a faulty method of feeding undoubtedly predisposes to the 
disease, and in the same district the carefully fed will escape in far 
larger proportion than the badly fed. But it is so with every other 
condition which undermines the general health. The presence of worms 
in the intestines, overwork, aud debilitating diseases and causes of 
every kind weaken the vitality and lay the system more open to attack. 
Thierry long ago showed that the improvement of close, low, dark, 
damp stables, where the disease had previously prevailed, practically 
banished this affection. Whatever contributes to strength and vigor 
is protective — whatever contributes to weakness' and poor health is 
provocative of the disease in the predisposed subject. 

The symptoms vary according to the severity of the attack. In some 
cases there is marked fever, and in other slighter cases this may be 



266 

almost altogether wanting, but there is always a lack of vigor find en- 
ergy, bespeaking general disorder. The local symptoms are in the 
main those of internal ophthalmia, with, in mauy cases, an increased 
hardness of the eye-ball from effusion into its cavity. The contracted 
pupil does not expand much in darkness, nor even under the action of 
belladonna. Opacity advances from the margin, over a part or whole 
of the cornea, but so long as it is transparent there may be seen the 
turbid aqueous humor with or without flocculi, the dingy iris robbed 
of its clear black aspect, the slightly clouded lens and a greenish yellow 
reflection from the depth of the eye. From the fifth to the seventh day 
the flocculi precipitates in the lower part of the chamber, exposing more 
clearly the iris and lens, and absorption commences so that the eye 
may be cleared up in ten or fifteen days. 

The characteristic of the disease is, however, its recurrence again and 
again in the same eye until blindness results. The attacks may follow 
each other at intervals of a month, more or less, but they show no re- 
lation to any particular phase of the moon as might be inferred from 
the familiar name, but are determined rather by the weather, the health, 
the food, or by some periodicity of the system. From five to seven at- 
tacks usually result in blinduess, and then the second eye is liable to 
be attacked until it also is ruined. 

In the intervals between the attacks some remaining symptoms be- 
tray the condition, and these become more marked after each succes- 
sive access of disease. Even after the first attack there is a bluish ring 
round the margin of the transparent cornea. The eye seems smaller 
than the other, at first because it is retracted in its socket, and often 
after several attacks because of actual shrinkage (atrophy). The upper 
eyelid, in place of presenting a uniform, continuous arch, has about 
one-third from its inner angle an abrupt bend, caused by the contrac- 
tion of the levator muscle. The front of the iris has exchanged some of 
its dark, clear brilliancy for a lusterless yellow, and the depth of the eye 
presents more or less of the greenish yellow shade. The pupil remains 
a little contracted, except in advanced and aggravated cases, when, 
with opaque lens, it is widely dilated. If one eye only has suffered, as 
is common, the contrast in these respects with the souud eye is all the 
more characteristic. Another feature is the erect, attentive carriage of 
the ear, to compensate to some extent for the waning vision. 

The attacks vary greatly in severity in different cases, but the recur- 
rence is characteristic, and all alike lead to cataract and intraocular 
effusion, with pressure ou the retina and abolition of sight. 

The prevention of this disease is the great object to be aimed at, aud 
this demands the most careful breeding, feeding, housing, and general 
management as indicated under causes. Much can also be done by migra- 
tion to a high, dry location, but for this and malarious affections the im- 
provement of the land by drainage and good cultivation should be the 
final aim. 



267 

Treatment is not satisfactory, but is largely the same as for common 
internal ophthalmia. Some cases, like rheumatism, are benefited by 
scruple d®ses of powdered colchicum and 2 drain doses of salicylate of 
soda twice a day. In other cases with marked hardness of the globe of 
the eye from iutraocular effusion, puncture of the eye, or even the exci- 
sion of a portion of the iris, has helped. During recovery a course of 
tonics (2 drams oxide of iron, 10 grains nux vomica, and 1 ouuce sul- 
phate of soda daily) is desirable to invigorate the system and help to 
ward off another attack. The vulgar resort to knocking out the wolf teeth 
and cutting out the haw can only be condemned. The temporary re- 
covery would take place in one or two weeks though no such thing had 
been done, and the breaking of a small tooth, leaving its fang in the 
jaw, only increases the irritation. 

CATARACT. 

The common result of internal ophthalmia, as of the recurrent type, 
may be recognized as described under the first of these diseases. Its 
offensive appearance may be obviated by extraction or depression of 
the lens, but as the rays of light would no longer be properly refracted, 
perfect vision would not be restored, and the animal would be liable to 
prove an inveterate shyer. If perfect blindness continued by reason of 
pressure on the nerve of sight, no shying would result. 

PALSY OF THE NERVE OF SIGHT — AMAUROSIS. 

The'causes of this affection are tumors or other disease of the brain 
implicating the roots of the optic nerve; injury to the nerve between 
the brain and eye; and inflammation of the optic nerve within the eye 
(retina), or undue pressure on the same from dropsical or inflammatory 
effusion. It may also occur from overloaded stomach, from a profuse 
bleeding, aud even from the pressure of the gravid womb in gestation. 

The symptoms are wide dilatation of the pupils, so as to expose fully 
the interior of the globe, the expansion remaining the same inlight and 
darkness. Ordinary eyes when brought to the light have the pupils 
suddenly contract, and then dilate and contract alternately until they 
adapt themselves to the amount of light. The horse does not swerve 
when a feint to strike is made unless the hand causes a current of air. 
The ears are held erect aud turn quickly toward any noise, and the 
horse steps high to avoid stumbling over objects which it can not 
see. 

Treatment is only useful when the disease is symptomatic of some re- 
movable cause, like congested braiu, loaded stomach, or gravid womb. 
When recovery does not follow the termination of these conditions, ap- 
ply a blister behind the ear and give one-half dram doses of nux vomica 
daily. 



2G8 

TUMORS OP THE EYEBALL. 

A variety of tumors attack the eyeball — dermoid, papillary, fatty, 
cystic, and melanotic, but perhaps the most frequent in the horse is 
encephaloid caucer. This may grow in or on the globe, the haw, the 
eyelid, or the bones of the orbit, and is only to be remedied if at all by 
early and thorough excision. It may be distinguished from the less 
dangerous tumors by its softness, friability, and great vascularity, 
bleeding on the slightest touch, as well as by its anatomical structure. 

STAPHYLOMA. 

This consists in a bulging forward of the cornea at a given point by 
the saccular yielding and distension of its coats, and it may be either 
transparent or opaque and vascular. In the last form the iris has 
become adherent to the back of the cornea, and the whole structure 
has become filled with blood-vessels. In the first form the bulging coruea 
is attenuated ; in the last it may be thickened. The best treatment is 
by excision of a portion of the iris so as to relieve the intra ocular 
pressure. 

PARASITES IN THE EYE. 

Acari in the eye have been incidentally alluded to under inflammation 
of the lids. 

The Filaria lachrymalis is a white worm, one-half to 1 inch long, which 
inhabits the lachrymal duct and the under side of the eyelids and haw 
in the horse, producing a verminous conjunctivitis. The first step in 
treatment in such cases is to remove the worm with forceps, then treat 
as for external inflammation. 

The Filaria papillosa is a delicate, white, silvery-looking worm, which 
I have repeatedly found 2 inches in leugth. It invades the aqueous 
humor, where its constant active movements make it an object of great 
interest, and it is frequently exhibited as a " snake in the eye." It is 
found also in other internal cavities of the horse, to which it undoubt- 
edly makes its way from the food, and especially the water swallowed, 
and its prevention is therefore to be sought mainly in the supply of 
pure water from close deep wells. When present in the eye it causes 
inflammation and has to be removed through an incision made with 
the lancet in the upper border of the cornea close to the sclerotic, the 
point of the instrument being directed slightly forward to avoid injury 
to the iris. Then apply cold water or astringent lotions. 

The echinococcus, the cystic or larval stage of the echiuococcus tape- 
worm of the dog, has been found in the eye of the horse and acysticer- 
cus (Cysiicercus fistularis f) is also reported. 

The Pentastoma tamioides, which inhabits the nose of horse and dog, 
has been found by Stitten in the eye of the horse, but the case is 
unique. 



PLATE XIX. 




Theoretical Section of the Horse's Eye. 
a, Optic neri'ej b, Sclerotic / e,ClfjOrout; d,ltetina; e, Cornea/ fdris ( - 
g,h, Citiajy circle, fbrligcurtent) ] and processes given off by the choroid, 
though represented as isolated 'from it, inonlerto indicate their limits 
7no7e clea/ig, i,Mserllon of the ciliary processes on tlu? crgstedlme leris; 
J,tJr/st(tlline lens,- k,Oystalllne capsule- l,Tilreoiis bodz/; ?n,n,Anterior 
ami posterior chambers; o,Ineoretiecrluidicaiiofioftkenientbra7ie of 
therhpr£ousliumou7}p,p,Tcrrsi; qjq.Fibroizsmembrane of the eyelids ; 
7, Jriei'ator muscle of the upper eyelid; s,s, Orbicularis musd-e of the 
ei/elids; t,t,Skin oftheei/etids;u,tjb/i/u7i^lfi'a} vflpiderTTiic layer of 
t/ t \is -membrane covering tlie Gyrneay Jc,Posterior rectus ncuscle; 
y, Superior rectus muscle; ^Inferior rectus muscle,- w,rYbrous 
Shecdh of the orbit for O7 : bitol m^embrajiej. 



Geo-Marx.ctfter D Arboval, p. 371. 

DIAGRAMATIC VERTICAL SECTION THROUGH EYE 



Sackeu 4 Wilhelms UlhoCo N Y 



LAMENESS.— ITS CAUSES AND TREATMENT. 



By Prof. A. LIAUTARD, M. D., V. M., 

Principal of the American Veterinary College, New York. 



The consideration of the usefulness and consequently of the value 
to their human masters of those of the inferior animals which are 
classed as beasts of burden ultimately and naturally resolves itselt into 
an inquiry into the condition of that special portion of their organism 
which controls the function of locomotion, for it is only as living, or- 
ganized locomotive machines that the horse, the camel, the ox, and their 
burden-bearing companions are of practical value to man. This is 
especially true in regard to the members of the equine family, the most 
numerous and valuable of them all, and it naturally follows that with 
the horse for a subject of discussion the special topic and leading theme 
of inquiry will, by ah easy lapse, become an inquest into the condition 
and efficiency of his power for usefulness as a carrier or traveler. There 
is a large amount of abstract interest in the study of thatendowmentof 
the animal economy which enables its possessor to change his place at 
will and convey himself whithersoever his needs or his moods may in- 
cline him ; but how much greater the interest that attaches to the sub- 
ject when it becomes a practical and economic question and includes 
within its purview the various related topics which belong to the do- 
mains of physiology, pathology, therapeutics, and the entire round of 
scientific investigation into which it is finally merged as a subject for 
medical and surgical consideration, in a word, of actual disease and 
its treatment. It is not surprising that the intricate and complicated 
apparatus of locomotion, with its symmetry and harmony of move- 
ment and the perfection aud beauty of its details and adjuncts, should 
be admiringly denominated by students of creative design and atten- 
tive observers of nature and her marvelous contrivances and adapta- 
tions a living machine. 

The horse in a state of domesticity is of all the animal tribe the larg- 
est sharer with his master in his liability to the accidents and dangers 
which are among the incidents of civilized life. From his exposure to 
the missiles of war on the battle-field to his chance of picking up a nail 
from the city pavement there is no hour when he is not in danger of 

269 



270 

incurring injuries which may demand the host skill of the veterina- 
rian practitioner to repair. And this is not alone true of casualties 
which belong to the class of external and traumatic cases, but includes 
as well those of a kind perhaps more numerous, which may result in 
lesions of internal parts, frequently the most serious and obscure of all 
in their nature and effects. 

The horse is too important a factor in the practical details of human 
life and fills too large a place in the business and pleasure of the world 
to justify any indifference to his needs and his physical comfort or neg- 
lect in respect to the preservation of his peculiar powers for usefulness. 
In this connection it is hardly necessary to allude to sentimental con- 
siderations of " humanity," so called — a word which too often becomes 
a wretched misnomer when one recalls the neglects, the mistreatment, 
the overtasking and other cruelties, in many instances tortures, of 
which he becomes the helpless victim. In entering somewhat largely, 
therefore, upon a review of the subject, and treating in detail of the 
causes, the symptoms, the progress, the treatment, the results, and the 
consequences of lameness in the horse, we are performing a duty which 
needs no word of apology or justification. The subject explains and 
justifies itself, aud is its own vindication and illustration if any are 
needed. 

The function of locomotion is performed by the action of two princi- 
pal systems of organs, known in anatomical and physiological termin- 
ology as passive and active, the muscles performing the active and the 
bones the passive portion of the movement, the necessary connection 
between the co operating organism being effected by means of a vital 
contact by which the muscle is attached to the bone at certain determi- 
nate points on the surface of the latter. These points of attachment 
appear in the form of sometimes an eminence, sometimes a depression, 
sometimes a border or an angle, or again as a mere roughness, but 
each perfectly fulfilling its purpose, while the necessary motion is 
provided for by the formation of the ends of the long bones into the 
requisite articulations, joints, or hinges. Every motion is the product 
of the contraction of one or more of the muscles, which, as it acts 
upon the bony levers, gives rise to a mojjement of extension or flexion, 
abduction or adduction, rotation or circumduction. The movement 
of abduction is that which passes from and that of adduction that 
which passes towards the median line, or the center of the body. The 
movements of flexion and extension are too well understood to need 
defining. It is the combination and rapid alternations of these move- 
ments which produce the different postures and various gaits of the 
living animal, and it is their interruption and derangement, from what- 
soever cause, which constitutes the pathological condition of lameness. 

A concise examination of the general anatomy of these organs, how. 
ever, must precede the consideration of the pathological questions per- 
taining to the subject. A statement such as we have just given, con- 



271 

taining only the briefest hint of matters which, though not necessarily 
in their ultimate scientific minutiae, must be clearly comprehended in 
order to acquire a symmetrical and satisfactory view of the theme as a 
practical collation of facts to be remembered, analyzed, applied, and 
utilized. 

It was the great Bacon who wrote : "The human body may be com- 
pared, from its complex and delicate organization, to a musical instru- 
ment of the most perfect construction, but exceedingly liable to de- 
rangement." In its degree the remark is equally applicable to the equine 
body, and if we would keep it in tune and profit by its harmonious 
action we must at least acquaint ourselves with the relations of its parts 
and the mode of their co-operation. 

ANATOMY. 

The bones, then, are the hard organs which in their connection and 
totality constitute the skeleton of an animal. They are of various 
forms, of which three — the long, the flat, and the small — are recognized 
in the extremities. These are more or less regular in their form, but 
present upon their surfaces a variety of aspects, exhibiting in turn, 
according to the requirement of each case, a roughened or smooth sur- 
face, variously marked with grooves, crests, eminences and depressions, 
for the necessary muscular attachments, and, as before mentioned, are 
connected by articulations and joints, of which some are immovable and 
others of a movable kind. 

The substance of the bones is composed of a mass of combined earthy 
and animal matter, surrounded by a fine, fibrous enveloping membrane 
(the periosteum) which is intimately adherent to the external surface of 
the bone, and is, in fact, the secreting membrane of the bony structure. 
The bony tissue proper is of two consistences, the external portion be- 
ing hard and "compact," and called by the latter term, while the inter- 
nal, known as the '' spongy tissue" or " areolar," is also of a consistency 
corresponding with these descriptive terms. Those of the boues which 
possess this latter consistency contain also, in their spongy portion, the 
medullary substance known as marrow, which is deposited in large 
quantities in the interior of the long bones, and especially where a cen- 
tral cavity exists, called, for that reason, the medullary cavity. The 
nourishment of the bones is effected by means of what is known as the 
nutrient foramen, which is an opening established for the passage of 
the blood vessels which convey the necessary nourishment to the interior 
of the organ. There are other minutiae concerning the nourishment of 
the skeleton, such as the venous arrangement and the classification of 
their arterial vessels into several orders, which, though of interest as 
an abstract study, are not of sufficient practical value to refer to here. 

The active organs of locomotion, the muscles, form, speaking gener- 
ally, the fleshy covering of the external part of the skeleton and sur* 



'272 

round the bones of the extremities. They vary greatly in shape and 
size, being flat, triangular, long, short, or broad, and are variously and 
capriciously named, some from their shape, some from their situation, 
and others from their use, and thus we have abductors and adductors, 
the pyramidal and orbicular, the digastricus, the vastus, and the rest. 
Those which are under the control of the will, known as the voluntary 
muscles, appear in the form of fleshy structures, red in color, and with 
fibers of various degrees of fineness, and are composed of "fasciculi," 
or bundles of fibers, united by connective or cellular tissue, each fasci- 
culus being composed of smaller ones, less in size, but united in a simi- 
lar manner to compose the larger formations, each of which is enveloped 
by a structure of similar nature known as the sar oolemma. Many of 
the muscles are united to the bones by the direct contact of their fleshy 
libers, but, in other instances, the body of the muscle is more or less 
gradually transformed into a cordy or membranous structure known 
as the tendon or sinew, and the attachment is made by very short 
fibrous threads through the medium of a long tendinous band, which, 
passing from a siugleone to several other of the bones, effects its object 
at a point far distant from its original attachment. In thus carrying 
its action from one bone to another, or from one region of a limb to 
another, these tendons must necessarily have smooth surfaces over 
which to glide, either upon the bones themselves or formed at their 
articulations, and this need is supplied by the secretion of the synovial 
fluid, a yellowish, unctuous substance, furnished by a peculiar tendin- 
ous synovial sac, designed for the purpose. 

Illustrations in point of the agency of the synovial fluid in assisting 
the sliding movements of the tendons may be found under their various 
forms at the shoulder joint, at the upper part of the bone of the arm, 
at the posterior part of the kneejoint, and also at the fetlocks, on their 
posterior part. 

As the tendons, whether singly or in company with others, pass over 
these natural pullies they are retained in place by strong fibrous bands 
or sheaths, which are by no means exempt from danger of injury, as 
will be readily inferred from a consideration of their important special 
use as supports and reinforcements of the tendons themselves, with 
which they must necessarily share the stress of whatever force or strain 
is br. right to bear upon both or either. 

We have referred to that special formation of the external surface of 
a bone by which it is adapted to form a joint or articulation, either mov- 
able or fixed, and a concise examination of the formation and structure 
of the movable articulations will here be in place. These are formed 
generally by the extremities of the long, or they may exist on the sur- 
faces of the short bones; the points or regions where the contact oc- 
curs being denominated the articular surface, which assumes from this 
circumstance a considerable variety of aspect and form, being in one 
case comparatively flat and at another elevated; or as forming a pro- 



273 

trading head or knob, with a distinct convexity; and again presenting 
a corresponding depression or cavity, accurately adapted to complete, 
by their coaptation, the ball and socket joint. The articulation of the 
arm and shoulder is an example of the first kind, while that of the 
hip with the thigh bone is a perfect exhibition of the latter. 

The structure, whose office is the retention of the articulation in 
place, is the ligament. This is a white, inelastic, or yellowish texture, 
possessing in some degree the opposite quality. In some instances it 
is of a corded or funicular shape, but consists in others of a broad 
membrane, in the first form serving to bind the bones more firmly to- 
gether, and in the latter surrounding or inclosing, in whole or in part, 
the broad articulations, and calculated rather for the protection of the 
cavity from intrusion by the air than for other security. These latter 
are usually found in connection with those of the joints which possess a 
free and extended movement, butare also found accompanying the funic- 
ular ligaments either surrounding and inclosing the joints or occupy- 
ing the interior of their structure, as inter articular, in which situation 
they secure the union of the several bones more firmly and effectively 
than would be possible for the capsular ligament unassisted. 

The universal need which pertains to all mechanical contrivances of 
motion has not been forgotten while providing for the perfect working 
of the interesting piece of living machinery which performs the func- 
tion of locomotion, as we are contemplating it, and nature has conse- 
quently provided for obviating the evifs of attrition and friction, and 
insuring the easy play and smooth movement of its parts, by the estab- 
lishment of the secretion of the synovia, the vital lubricant of which we 
have before spoken, as a yellow, oily, or rather glairy secretion, which 
performs the indispensable office of facilitating the play of the tendons 
over the joints and certain given points of the bones. This fluid, 
which is deposited in a containing sac, the lining (serous) membrane of 
which forms the secreting organ, is of an excessively sensitive nature, 
and while it lines the inner face of the ligaments, both capsular and 
fascicular, is attached only upon the edges of the bones without extend- 
ing upon their length or between the layers of cartilage which lie be- 
tween the bones and their articular surfaces. 

Our object in thus partially and concisely reviewing the structure 
and condition of the essential organs of locomotion has been rather to 
outline a sketch which may serve as a reference chart of the general 
features of the subject, than to offer a minute description of the parts 
referred to. Other points of interest will receive due attention as we 
proceed with the illustration of our subject and examine the matters 
which it most concerns us to bring under consideration. The founda- 
tion of facts which we have thus far prepared will be found sufficiently 
broad, we trust, to include whatever may be necessary to insure a ready 
comprehension of the essential matters which are to follow, as our re- 
view is carried forward to completion. What we have said touching 
11035 18 



274 

these elementary truths will probably be sufficient to facilitate a clear 
understanding of the requirements essential to tlie perfection and reg- 
ularity which characterize the normal performance of the various move- 
ments which result in the accomplishment of the action of locomotion. 
So long as the bones, the muscles and their tendons, the joints with 
their cartilages, their ligaments and their synovial structure; the 
nerves and the controlling influences which they exercise overall, with 
the blood vessels which distribute to every part, however minute, the 
vitalizing fluid which sustains the whole fabric in being and activity — 
so long as these various constituents and adjuncts of animal life pre- 
serve their normal exemption from disease, traumatism and patholog- 
ical change, the function of locomotion will continue to be performed 
with perfection and efficiency. 

But on the other hand, let any element of disease become implanted 
in one or several of the parts destined for combined action, any change 
or irregularity of form, dimensions, location or action occur in any por- 
tion of the apparatus — any obstruction or misdirection of vital power 
take place, any interference with the order of the phenomena of normal 
nature, any loss of harmony and lack of balance be betrayed, and we 
have in the result the condition of lameness. 

DEFINITION OF LAMENESS. 

Physiology. — Comprehensively and universally considered, then, the 
term lameness signifies any irregularity or derangement of the function 
of locomotion irrespective of the cause which produced it or the de- 
gree of its manifestation. However slightly or severely it may be ex- 
hibited, it is all the same. The nicest observation may be demanded 
for its detection, and it may need the most thoroughly trained powers 
of discernment to identify and locate it, as in cases where the animal 
is said to he fainting, tender, or to go sore. Or the patient may be so far 
affected as to refuse utterly to use an injured leg, and under compulsory 
motion keep it raised from the ground, and prefer to travel on three 
legs rather than to bear any portion of his weight upon the afflicted 
member. In these two extremes, and in all the intermediate degrees, 
the patient is simply lame — pathognomonic iniuutias being considered 
and settled in a place of their own. 

These last two classifications of the condition of disabled function, of 
simple lameness and lameness on three legs, are very easy of detection, 
but the first or mere tenderness, or soreness, may be very difficult to 
identify, and at times very serious results have followed from the ob- 
scurity which has enveloped the early stages of the malady. For it 
may easily occur that in the absence of the treatment which an early 
correct diagnosis would have indicated, an insidious ailment may so take 
advantage of the lapse of time as to root itself too deeply into the 
economy to bd subverted, and become transformed into a disabling 
chronic case, or possibly one that is incurable and fatal, Hence the im- 



275 

policy of depreciating early symtoins because they are unaccompanied 
by distinct and pronounced characteristics, and from a lack of threaten- 
ing appearances inferring the absence of danger. The possibilities of 
an ambush can never be safely ignored. An extra caution costs nothing, 
even if wasted. The fulfillment of the first duty of a practitioner, 
when introduced to a case, is not always an easy task, though it is too 
frequently expected that the diagnosis or u what is the matter " verdict 
will be reached by the quickest and surest kind of an '"instantaneous 
process," and a sure prognosis, or " how will it end" guessed at instanter. 

Usually the discovery that the animal is becoming lame is compara- 
tively an easy matter to a careful observer. Such a ijerson will readily 
note the changes of movement which will have taken place in the ani- 
mal he has been accustomed to drive or ride, unless they are indeed 
slight and limited to the last degree. But what is not always easy is 
the detection, after discovering the fact of an existing irregularity, of 
the locality of its point of origin, and whether its seat be in the near or 
off leg, or in the fore or the hind part of the body. These are questions 
too often wrongly answered, notwithstanding the fact that with a little 
careful scrutiny the point may be easily settled. The error, which is 
too often committed, of pronouncing the leg upon which the animal 
travels soundly as the seat of the lameness, is the result of amisinter- 
pertation of the physiology of locomotion in the crippled animal. Much 
depends upon the gait with which the animal moves while under exam- 
ination. The act of walking is unfavorable for accurate observation, 
though, if the animal walks on three legs, the decision is easy to reach. 
The action of galloping will often, by the rapidity of the muscular move- 
ments and their quick succession, interfere with a nice study of their 
rhythm, and it is only under some peculiar circumstances that the ex- 
amination can be safely conducted while the animal is moving with that 
gait. It is while the animal is trotting that the investigation is made 
with the best chances of an intelligent decision, and it is while moving 
with that gait, therefore, that the points should be looked for which 
must form the elements of the diagnosis. 

Our first consideration should be the physiology of normal or healthy 
locomotion, that from thence we may the more easily reach our conclu- 
sions touching that which is abnormal, otherwise lameness, and by this 
process we ought to succeed in obtaining a clew to the solution of the 
first problem, to wit : in which leg is the seat of the lameness f 

A word of definition is here necessary, in order to render that which 
follows more easily intelligible. In veterinary nomenclature each two 
of the legs, as referred to in pairs, are denominated a biped. The four 
points occupied by the feet of the animal while standing at rest, form- 
ing a square, the two fore legs are known as the anterior biped; the 
two hinder, the posterior ; the two on one side, the lateral ; and one of 
either the front or hind biped with the opposite leg of the hind or front 
biped will form the diagonal biped, 



276 

Considering, as it is proper to do, that in a condition of health each 
separate biped and each individual leg is required to perform an equal 
and uniform function and to carry an even or equal portion of the weight 
of the body, it will be readily appreciated that the result of this equal 
distribution will be a regular, evenly balanced, and smooth displace- 
ment of the body thus supported by the four legs, and that therefore, 
according to the rapidity of the motion in different gaits, each single 
leg will be required at certain successive moments to bear the weight 
which had rested upon its congener while it was itself in the air, in the 
act of moving ; or, again, two different legs of a biped may be called 
upon to bear the weight of the two legs of the opposite biped while 
also in the air in the act of moving. 

To simplify the matter by an illustration, the weight of an animal 
may be placed at 1,000, of which each leg, in a normal and healthy con- 
dition, supports while at rest 250. When one of the fore legs is in ac- 
tion, or in the air, and carrying no weight, its 250 share of the weight 
will be thrown upon its congener or partner to sustain. If the two legs 
of a biped are both in action and raised from the ground, their congeners 
still resting in iiaaction, will carry the total weight of the other two, or 
500. And as the succession of movements continues, and the change 
from one leg to another or from one biped to another, as may be re- 
quired by the gait, proceeds, there will result a smooth, even, and equal 
balancing of active movements, shifting the weight from one leg or one 
biped to another, with symmetrical precision, and we shall be presented 
with an interesting example of the play of vital mechanics in a healthy 
organization. 

Much may be learned from the accurate study of the action of a 
single leg. Normally, its movements will be without variation or fail- 
ure. When at rest it will easily sustain the weight assigned to it, with- 
out showing hesitancy or betraying pain, and when it is raised from 
the ground in order to transfer the weight to its mate, it will perform 
the act in such a manner that when it is again placed upon the ground 
to rest it will be with a firm tread, indicative of its ability to receive 
again the burden to be thrown back upon it. In planting it upon the 
ground or raising it up again for the forward movement while in action, 
and again replanting it upon the earth, each movement will be the 
same for each leg and for each biped, whether the act be that of walk- 
ing or trotting, or even of galloping. In short, the regular play of 
every part of the apparatus will testify to the existence of that condi- 
tion of orderly soundness and efficient activity which is eloquently sug- 
gestive of the condition of vital integrity, which is simply but compre- 
hensively expressed by the terms health and soundness. 

feut let some change, though slight and obscure, occur among the 
elements of the case, some invisible agency of evil intrude among the 
harmonizing processes going forward ; any disorder occur in the rela- 



277 

tions of cooperating parts ; anything appear to neutralize the efficiency 
of vitalizing forces; any disability of a limb to accept aud to throw 
back upon its mate the portion of the weight which belongs to it to sus- 
tain, whether as the effect of traumatic accidents or otherwise ; in short, 
whatever tends to defeat the purpose of nature in organizing the loco- 
motive apparatus may be looked upon as a cause of lameness. And it is 
not the least of the facts which it is important to remember that it is 
not sufficient to look for the manifestation of an existing discordance 
in the action of the affected limb alone, but that it is shared by the 
sound one, and must be searched for in that as well as the halting 
member, if the hazard of an error is to be avoided. The mode of action 
of the leg, which is the seat of the lameness, will vary greatly from 
that which it exhibited When in a healthy condition, and the sound leg 
will also offer important modifications in the same three particulars 
before alluded to, to wit, that of resting on the ground, that of its ele- 
vation and forward motion, and that of striking the ground again when 
the full action of stepping is accomplished. Inability in the lame leg 
to sustain weight will imply excessive exertion by the sound one, and 
lack of facility or disposition to rest the lame member on the ground 
will necessitate a longer continuance of that action on the sound side. 
Changes in the act of elevating the leg, or of carrying it forward, in 
both, will present, however, entirely opposite conditions between the 
two. The lame member will be elevated rapidly, moved carefully for- 
ward, and returned to the ground with caution and hesitancy, aud the 
contact with the earth will be effected as lightly as possible, while the 
sound limb will rest longer on the ground, move boldly and rapidly 
forward, and strike the ground promptly and forcibly. All this is due 
to the fact that the sound member carries more than its normal, healthy 
share of the weight of the body, a share which maybe in excess from 
1 to 250, and thus bring its burden to a figure varying from 251 to 500, 
all depending upon the degree of the existing lameness, whether it is 
simply a slight tenderness or soreness, or whether the trouble has 
reached a stage which compels the patient to the awkwardness of travel- 
ing on three legs. 

That all this is not mere theory, but rests on a foundation of fact may 
be established by observing the manifestations attending a single al- 
teration in the balancing of the body. In health, the support and 
equilibrium of that mass of the body which is borne by the fore legs is 
equalized, and passes by regular alternations from the right to the left 
side, and vice versa. But if the left leg becoming disabled, relieves 
itself by leaning, as it were, ou the right, the latter becomes, conse- 
quently, practically heavier, and the mass of the body will incline or 
settle upon that side. Lameness of the left side, therefore, means drop- 
ping or settling on the right, and vice versa. We emphasize this state- 
ment and insist upon it ; the more from the frequency of the instances 



278 

of error which have come under our notice, in. which parties have in- 
sisted upon their view tbat the leg which is the seat of the lameness is 
that upon which he drops, and which the animal is usually supposed to 
favor. 

HOW TO DETECT THE SEAT OF LAMENESS. 

Properly appreciating the remarks which have preceded, and fully 
comprehending the modus operandi and the true pathology of lameness, 
but little remains to be done in order to reach an answer to the ques- 
tion as to which side of the animal the lameness is seated, except to ex- 
amine the patient while in action. We have already stated our reasons 
for preferring the movement of trotting for this purpose. In conduct- 
ing such an examination the animal should be unblanketed, and held 
by a plain halter in the hands of a man who knows how to manage his 
paces, and preference should be given to a hard road for the trial. He 
is to be examined from various positions — from before, from behind, and 
from each side. Watching him as he approaches, as he recedes, and as 
he passes by, the observer should carefully study that important action 
which we have spoken of as the dropping of the body upon one extremity 
or the other, and this can readily be detected by attending closely to 
the motions of the head and of the hip. The head drops on the same 
side on which the mass of the body will fall, dropping towards the 
right when the lameness is in the left fore-leg, and the hip dropping in 
posterior lameness, also on the sound leg, the reversal of the conditions, 
of course, producing reversed effects. In other words, when the animal 
in trotting exhibits signs of irregularity of action, or lameness, and this 
irregularity is accompanied by dropping or nodding the head, or de- 
pressing the hip on the right side of the body, at the time the feet of 
the right side strike the ground, the horse is lame on the left side. If the 
dropping and nodding are on the near side the lameness is on the off side. 

But in a majority of cases the answer to the first question relating to 
the lameness of a horse is, after all, not a very difficult task. There are 
two other problems in the case more difficult of solution and which often 
require the exercise of a closer scrutiny, and draw upon all the resources 
of the experienced practitioner to settle satisfactorily. That a horse is 
lame in a given leg may be easily determined, but when it becomes 
necessary to pronounce upon the query as to what part, what region, 
what structure, is affected, the easy part of the task is over, and the 
more difficult and important, because more obscure portion of the in- 
vestigation has commenced — except, of course, in cases of which the 
features are too distinctly evident to the senses to admit of error. It 
is true that by carefully noting the manner in which a lame leg is per- 
forming its functions, and closely scrutinizing the motions of the whole 
extremity, and especially of the various joints which enter into its 
structure ; by minutely examining every part of the limb ; by observing 
the outlines ; by testing the change, if any, in temperature and the state 



279 

of the sensibility— all these investigations may guide the surgeon to a 
correct localization of the seat of trouble, but he must carefully refrain 
from the adoption of a hasty conclusion, and above all, assure himself 
that he has not failed to make the foot, of all the organs of the horse the 
most liable to injury and lesion, the subject of the most thorough and 
minute examiuation of all the parts which compose the suffering ex- 
tremity. 

The greater liability of the foot than of any other part of the ex- 
tremities to injury from casualties, natural to its situation and use, 
should always suggest the beginning of an inquiry, especially in an ob- 
scure case of lameness at that point. Indeed the lameness may have 
an apparent location elsewhere, when that is the true seat of the trouble, 
and the surgeon who, while examining his lame patient, discovers a 
ringbone, and satisfying himself that he has encountered the cause of 
the disordered action suspends his investigation without subjecting the 
foot to a close scrutiny, may deeply regret his neglect and inadvertence 
at a later day, when regrets will avail nothing towards remedying the 
irreparable injury which has ensued upon his partial method of explora- 
tion. But, as in human pathological experience, there are instances 
when inscrutable diseases will deliver their fatal messages, while leaving 
no mark and making no sign by which they might be identified and 
classified, so it will happen that in the humbler animals the onset and 
progress of mysterious and unrecognizable ailments will at times baffle 
the best veterinarian skill, and leave our burden-bearing servants to 
succumb to the inevitable, and suffer and perish in unrelieved distress. 

DISEASES OF BONES. 
PERIOSTITIS — OSTITIS — EXOSTOSIS. 

From the closeness and intimacy of the connection existing between 
the two principal elements of the bony structure while in health, it fre- 
quently becomes exceedingly difficult, when a state of disease has super- 
vened, to discriminate accurately as to the part primarily affected, 
and to determine positively whether the periosteum or the body of the 
bone is originally implicated. Yet a knowledge of the fact is often of 
the first importance, in order to secure a favorable result from the 
treatment to be instituted. It is, however, quite evident that in a 
majority of instances the bony growths which so frequently appear on 
the surface of their structure, to which the general term of exostosis is 
applied, have had their origin in an inflammation of the periosteum, or 
enveloping membrane, and known as periostitis. However this may be 
we have as a frequent result, sometimes on the length of the bone, 
sometimes at the extremities, and sometimes involving the articulation 
itself, certain bony growths, or exostoses, known otherwise by the 
term splint, ringbone and spavin, all of which, in an important sense, 
may be finally referred to the periosteum as their nutrient source and 



280 

support, lit least after their formation, if not for their incipient exist- 
ence. It is certain that inflammation of the periosteum is frequently 
referable to wounds and bruises caused by external agencies, and it is 
also true that it may possibly result from the spreading inflammation 
of surrounding diseased tissues, but in any case the result is uniformly 
seen in the deposit of a bony growth, more or less diffuse, sometimes of 
irregular outline, and at others projecting distinctly from the surface 
from which it springs, as so commonly presented in the ringbone and 
the spaviiu This condition of periostitis is often difficult to determine. 
The signs of inflammation are so obscure, the swelling of the parts so 
insignificant, any increase of heat so imperceptible, and the soreness so 
slight, that even the most acute observer may fail to locate the point of 
its existence, and it is often long after the discovery of the disease itself 
that its location is positively revealed by the visible presence of the exos- 
tosis. Yet the first question had been resolved, in discovering the fact 
of the lameness, while the second and third remained unanswered, and 
the identification of the affected limb and the point of origin of the 
trouble remained unknown until their palpable revelation to the senses. 
When, by careful scrutiny the ailment has been located, a resort to treat- 
ment must be had at once, in order to prevent, if possible, any further 
deposit of the calcareous structure and increase of the exostotic growth. 
With this view the application of water, either warm or cold, rendered 
astringent by the addition of alum or sugar of lead, will be beneficial. 
The tendency to the formation of the bony growth, and the increase oi 
its development after its actual formation, may often be checked by the 
application of a severe blister of Spanish fly. The failure of these means 
and the establishment of the diseased process in the form of chronic 
periostitis causes various changes in the bone covered by the disordered 
membrane, and the result may be softening, degeneration, or necrosis, 
but more usually it is followed by the formation of the bony growths 
referred to, on the cannon bone, the coronet, the hock, etc. 



We first turn our attention to the splint, as certain bony enlargements 
which are developed on the cannon bone, between the knee or the hock and 
the fetlock joint, are called. They are found on the inside of the leg, 
from the knee, near to which they are to be found, downward to about the 
lower third of the principal cannon bone. They are of various dimen- 
sions, and are readily perceptible both to the eye and to the touch. 
They vary considerably in size, ranging from that of a large nut down- 
ward to very small proportions. In searching for them they may be 
readily detected by the hand if they have attained sufficient develop- 
ment in their usual situation, but must be distinguished from a small 
bony enlargement which may be felt at the lower third of the cannon 
bone, and is not a splint nor a pathological formation of any kind, but 
merely the normal development of the small cannon bone. 



281 

We have said that splints are to be found on the inside of the leg. 
This is true as a general statement, but it is not invariably so, and tbey 
occasionally appear on the outside. It is also true that they appear 
most commonly on the fore legs, but this is not exclusively the case, and 
they may at times be found on both the inside and outside of the hind 
legs. Usually a splint forms only a true exostosis, or a siugle bony 
growth, with a somewhat diffuse base, but neither is this invariably the 
case. In some instances they assume more important dimensions, and 
pass from the inside to the outside of the bone, on its posterior face, 
between that and the suspensory ligament. This form is termed the 
pegged splint, and constitutes a serious and permanent deformity, in con- 
sequence of its interference with the play of the fibrous cord which 
passes behind it, becoming thus a source of continual irritation and con- 
sequently of permanent lameness. 

A splint may thus frequently become a cause of lameness though not 
necessarily in every instance ; but it is a lameness possessing features 
peculiar to itself. It is not always continuous, but at times assumes 
an intermittent character, and is more marked when the animal is warm 
than when he is cool. If the lameness is near the knee-joint, it is very 
apt to become aggravated when the animal is put to work, and the gait 
acquires then a peculiar character, arising from the manner in which 
the limb is carried outward from the knees downwards, which is done 
by a kind of abduction of the lower part of the leg. Other symptoms, 
however, than the lameness and the presence of the splint, which is it3 
cause, may be looked for in the same connection as those which have 
been mentioned as pertaining to certain evidences of periostitis, in the 
increase of the temperature of the part, with swelling and probably 
pain on pressure. This last symptom is of no little importance, since 
its presence or absence has in many cases formed the determining point 
in deciding a question of difficult diagnosis. 

A splint being one of the results of periostitis, and the latter one of 
the effects of external hurts, it naturally follows that the parts which 
are most exposed to blows aud collisions will be those on which the 
splint will most commonly be found, and it may not be improper, there- 
fore, to refer to hurts from without as among the common causes of the 
lesion. But other causes may also be productive of the evil, and among 
these may be mentioned the overstraining of an immature organism by 
the imposition of excessive labor upon a young animal at a too early 
period of his life. The bones which enter into the formation of the 
cannon are three in number, one large and two smaller, which, during 
the youth of the animal, are more or less articulated, with a limited 
a mount of mobility, but which become in maturity firmly joined by a 
rigid union and ossification of their inter-articular surface,, If the im- 
mature animal be compelled, then, to perform exacting tasks beyond 
his strength the inevitable result will follow in the muscular straining, 
and perhaps tearing asunder of the fibers which unite the bones at their 



282 

points of juncture, and it is difficult to understand how the natural 
consequences of such a local irritation developing in inflammation or 
periostitis can be avoided. If the result were deliberately and intelli- 
gently designed it could hardly be more effectually accomplished. 

The splint is an object of the commonest occurrence, so common, 
indeed, that in large cities a horse which can not exhibit one or more 
specimens Upon some portion of his extremities is one of the rarest 
of spectacles. Though it is in some instances a cause of lameness 
and its discovery and cure are sometimes beyond the ability of the 
shrewdest and most experienced veterinarian, yet as a source of vital 
danger to the general equine organization, or even of functional dis- 
turbance, or of practical inconvenience, aside from the rare exceptional 
cases which exist as mere samples of possibility, it can not be consid- 
ered to belong to the category of serious lesions. The worst stigma 
that attaches to it is that in general estimation it is ranked among eye- 
sores, and continues indefinitely to be that and nothing less or better. 
The inflammation in which they originated, acute at first, either sub- 
sides or assumes the chronic form, and the bony growth becomes a per- 
manence, more or less established, it is true, but doing no positive harm, 
and not hindering the animal from continuing his daily routine of labor. 
All this, however, requires a proviso against the occurrence of a subse- 
quent acute attack, when, as with other exostoses, a fresh access of 
acute symptoms may be followed by a new pathological activity which 
shall again develop as a natural result a reappearance of the lameness. 

It is of course the consideration of the comparative harmlessness of 
splints that suggests and justifies the policy of non-interference, except 
as they become a positive cause of lameness. And a more positive 
argument for such non-interference consists in the fact that any active 
and irritating treatment may so excite the parts as to bring about a 
renewed pathological activity, which may result in a reduplication of 
the phenomena, with a second edition if not a second and enlarged vol- 
ume of the whole story. For our part our faith is firm in the impolicy 
of interference, and this faith is founded on an experience of many 
years, daring which our practice has been that of abstention. 

Of course there will be exceptional conditions which will at times 
indicate a different course. These will become evident when the occa- 
sions present themselves, and extraordinary forms aud effects of inflam- 
mation and growth in the tumors offer special indications. But our 
conviction remains unshaken that surgical treatment of the operative 
kind is usually useless, if not dangerous. We have little faith in the 
method of extirpation except under very special conditions, among 
which that of diminutive size has been named, which seems in itself to 
constitute a sufficient negative argument. But even in such a case a 
resort to the knife or the gouge could scarcely find ajustification, since 
no operative procedure is ever without a degree of hazard, to say 



283 

nothing of the considerations which are always forcibly negative in any 
question of the infliction of pain and the unnecessary use of the knife. 

If an acute periostitis of the cannon bone has been readily discovered, 
the treatment we bave already suggested for that ailment is at once 
indicated, and the astringent lotions may be relied upon to bring about 
beneficial results. Sometimes, however, preference may be given to a 
lotion possessing a somewhat different quality, the alterative consisting 
of tincture of iodine applied to the inflamed spot several times daily. 
If the lameness persists under this mild course of treatment it must of 
course be attacked by other methods, and we must resort to the can- 
tharidal ointment or Spanish-fly blister, as we have before recommended. 
Besides this, and producing an analogous effect, the compounds of 
biniodide of mercury are favored by some. It is prepared in the form 
of an ointment, consisting of 1 dram of the biniodide to 1 ounce of 
either lard or vaseline. It forms an excellent blistering and alterative 
application, and is of special advantage in newly formed or recently 
discovered exostosis. 

It remains a pertinent query, however, and one which seems to be 
easily answered, whether a tumor so diminutive in size that it can only 
be detected by diligent search, and which is neither a disfigurement nor 
an obstruction to the motion of the limb, need receive any recognition 
whatever. Other 7nodes of treatment for splints are recommended and 
practiced which belong strictly to the domain of operative veterinary 
surgery. Among these are to be reckoned actual cauterization, or the 
application of the fire-iron and the operation of periosteotomy. These 
are frequently indicated in the treatment of splints which have resisted 
milder means. 

The mode of the development of their growth ; their intimacy, greater 
or less, with both the large and the small cannon bones ; the possibility 
of their extending to the back of these bones under the suspensory 
ligament ; the dangerous complications which may follow the rough 
handling of the parts ; with also a possibility, and indeed a probability, 
of their return after removal, these are the considerations which have 
influenced our judgment in discarding from our practice and our ap- 
proval the method of removal by the saw or the chisel, as recommended 
by certain European veterinarians. 

RINGBONES. 

This peculiar term forms the designation of the exostosis which is 
found on the coronet, in the digital, and also in the phalangeal region, 
probably because it extends quite around the coronet, which it encircles 
in the manner of a 'ring, or perhaps because it often forms upon the 
back of that bone a regular osseous circlet, through which the back 
tendons obtain a passage. The dimensions which may be attained by 
these tumors and the places where they are usually developed have 



284 

caused their subdivision and classification into three varieties, with the 
designations of high, middle, and tow, though much can not be said as 
to the importance of such distinction. It is true that the ringbone or 
phalangeal exostosis may be found at various points on the coronet, in 
one case forming a large bunch on the upper part and quite close to the 
fetlock joint; then appearing on the very lower portion around the upper 
border of the foot ; seen again on the extreme front of the coronet ; or 
perhaps discovered on the very back of it. The shape in which they 
coQimouly appear is favorable to their easy discovery, their form when 
near the fetlock usually varying too much from the natural outlines of 
the part when compared with those of the opposite side to admit of 
error in the matter. 

A ringbone when in front of the coronet, even when not very largely 
developed, assumes the form of a diffused convex swelling. If situated 
on the lower part, it will form a thick ring, encircling the upper portion 
of the foot; when found on the posterior part, a small, sharp osseous 
growth somewhat projecting, sometimes on the inside and sometimes 
on the outside of the coronet, may comprise the entire manifestation. 

As with splints, ringbones may result from severe labor in early life, 
before the process of ossification has been fully perfected ; or they may 
be referred to bruises, blows, sprains, or other violence; or injuries of 
tendons, ligaments, or joints may be among the accountable accidents. 
It is certain that they may commonly be traced to diseases and trau- 
matic lesions of the foot, and their appearance may be reasonably an- 
ticipated among the sequelae of an abscess of the coronet ; or the cause 
maybe a severe contusion resulting from calking, or a deep-punctured 
wound from picking up a nail or stepping upon any hard object of suffi- 
ciently irregular form to penetrate the sole. 

Moreover, a ringbone may claim to possess the character of a legacy — 
it may originate in heredity. This is a fact of no little importance in its 
relation to questions connected with the extensive interests of the stock 
breeder and purchaser. To regard a liability to transmit constitutional 
idiosyncrasies by common propagation as a disease or a diathesis would 
be obviously unphilosophical ; but to recognize the fact, in view of ex- 
isting evidences, in connection with the affection we are considering, is 
but to render its due to the claims of honest conviction and such, a 
conviction we do not hesitate to own. That it is an active tendency 
in respect to diseases generally it would be absurd to claim. But 
we do claim that a disposition to contract this particular form of 
lesion may be transmitted from parent to offspring, though in most 
cases only with sufficient vigor to impress a predisposition on the 
part of the latter. Yet in a smaller proportion of cases it may, in point 
of fact, constitute a force sufficient to act as a secondary cause of de- 
veloped disease, which may in due time become a visible ringbone. 

The importance of this point when considered in reference to the 
policy which should be observed in the selection of breeding stock, is 



285 

obvious, and as the whole matter is within the control of the owners 
and breeders it will be their own fault if the unchecked transmission 
of ringbones from one equine generation to another shall be allowed to 
continue. It is our belief that among the diseases which are known for 
their tendency to perpetuate and repeat themselves by individual suc- 
cession, those of the bony structures stand first, and the inference from 
such a fact which would exclude every animal of doubtful soundness 
in its osseous apparatus from the stud list and the brood farm is too 
plain for argument. 

Periostitis of the phalanges is an ailment requiring careful explora- 
tion and minute inspection for its discovery and is quite likely to result 
in a ringbone of which lameness is the effect. The mode of its mani- 
festation varies according to the state of development of the diseased 
growth as affected by the circumstances of its location and dimensions. 
It is commonly of the kind which, in consequence of its intermittent 
character, is termed lameness when cool, having the peculiarity of exhib- 
iting itself when the animal starts from the stable and of diminishing if 
not entirely disappearing after some distance of travel to return to its 
original degree, if not indeed a severer one when he has again cooled 
off in his stable. The size of the ringbone does not indicate the degree 
to which it cripples the patient, but the position may, especially when 
it interferes with the free movement of the tendons which pass behind 
and in front of the coronet. While a large ringbone will often inter- 
fere but little with the motion of the limb, a smaller growth if situated 
under the tendon, may become the cause of considerable and continued 
pain. 

A ringbone is doubtless a worse evil than a splint. Its growth, its 
location, its tendency to increased development, its exposure to the in- 
fluence of causes of renewed danger, all tend to impart an unfavorable 
cast to the prognosis of a case and to emphasize the importance and the 
value of an early discovery of its presence and possible growth. Even 
when the discovery has been accomplished it is often the case that the 
truth has come to light too late for effectual treatment. Months may 
have elapsed after the first manifestation of the lameness before a dis- 
covery has been made of the lesion from which it has originated, and 
there is no recall for the lapsed time. And by the uncompromising seri- 
ousness of the discouraging prognosis must the energy and severity of 
the treatment and the promptness of its administration be measured. 
The periostitis has been overlooked; any chance that might have ex- 
isted for preventing its advance to the chronic stage has been lost; the 
osseous exudation is established ; the ringbone is a fixed fact, and the 
indications are urgent and pressing. These include severe blistering 
once or twice repeated; the application of the red iodide of mercury, 
and if these fail, firing with the hot iron, and as a last resort, neu- 
rotomy, high or low as indicated by the seat of the lesion. 



28(5 

SIDE BONES. 

On each side of the bone of the foot— the coffiu-bone — there are nor- 
mally two supplementary organs which are called the cartilages of the 
foot. They are soft, and though in a degree elastic, yet somewhat re- 
sisting, and are implanted on the lateral Aving of the coffin-bone. Evi- 
dently their office is to assist in the elastic expansion and contraction 
of the posterior part of the foot, and their healthy and normal action 
doubtless contributes in an important degree to the perfect performance 
of the functions of that part of the leg. These organs are, however, 
liable to undergo a process of disease which results in an entire change 
in their properties, if not in their shape, by which they acquire a char- 
acter of hardness resulting from the deposit of earthy substance in the 
intimate structure of the cartilage, and it is this change, when its con- 
summation has been affected, that brings to our cognizance the diseased 
growth which has received the designation of side-bones. They are 
situated on one or both sides of the leg, bulging above the superior 
border of the foot in the form of two hard bodies composed of ossified 
cartilage, irregularly square in shape and uuyieldiug uudec the pressure 
of the fingers. 

The side-bone may be a termination of alow inflammatory condition, 
or of an acute attack as well, or may be caused by sprains, bruises, or 
blows; or they may have their rise in certain diseases affecting the foot 
proper, as corns, quarter cracks, or quittor. The deposit of calcareous 
matter in the cartilage is not always uniform, the base of that organ 
near its line of union with the coffin-bone being in some cases its limit, 
while at other times it is diffused throughout its substance, the size 
and prominence of the tumors varying much in consequence. It would 
naturally be inferred that the amount of interference with the proper 
functions of foot which must result from such a pathological change 
would be proportioned to the size of the tumor, and that as the dimen- 
sions increased, the resulting lameness would be the greater in degree. 
This, however, is not the fact. A small tumor, while in a condition oi 
acute inflammation during the formative stage, may cripple a patient 
more severely than a much larger one in a later stage of the disease. In 
any case the lameness is never wanting, and with its intermittent charac- 
ter may usually be detected when the animal is cooled off after labor or 
exercise. The class of animals in which this feature of the disease is 
most frequently witnessed is that of the heavy draft horse, and others 
similarly employed. There is a wide margin of difference in respect to 
the degrees of severity which may characterize different cases of side- 
bone. While one may be so slight as to cause no inconvenience, an- 
other may develop elements of danger which may involve the necessity 
of severe surgical interference. 

The curative treatment should be similar to the prophylactic, and 
such means should be used as would tend to prevent the deposit of 
bony matters by checking the acute inflammation which causes it. 



287 

The means recommended are the free use of the cold bath ; frequent 
soaking of the feet, and at a later period treatment with iodine, either 
by painting the surface with the tincture several times daily, or by ap- 
plying an ointment made by mixing 1 dram of the crystals with 2 ounces 
of vaseline, rubbed in once a day for several days. If this proves to be 
ineffective, a Spanish fly blister, to which a few grains of biniodide of 
mercury have been added, will, in a majority of cases, effect the desired 
result and remove the lameness. If, finally, this treatment is resisted, 
the case must be relegated to the surgeou for the operation of neurot- 
omy, or the application of the fire-iron, freely and deeply. 

SPAVIN. 

This affection, popularly termed bone spavin, is an exostosis of the 
hock joint. The general impression is that in a spavined hock the bony 
growth should be seated on the anterior and internal part of the joint, 
and this is partially correct, as such a growth will constitute a spavin 
in the most correct sense of the term. But an enlargement may appear 
on the upper part of the hock also, or possibly a little below the inner 
side of the lower extremity of the shank bone, forming what is known 
as a high spavin) or, again, the growth may form just on the outside 
of the hock and become an outside or external spavin. And, finally, 
the entire under surface may become the seat of the osseous deposit, 
and involve the internal face of all the bones of the hock, and this again 
is a bone spavin. There would seem, then, to be but little difficulty in 
comprehending the nature of a bone spavin, and there would be none 
but for the fact that there are similar affections which might confuse a 
diagnosis if not very carefully and intelligently made. 

But the hock may be spavined, while to all outward observation it 
still retains its perfect form. With no enlargement tangible to sight 
or touch the animal may be disabled by an occult spavin, an anchylosis 
in fact, which has resulted from a union of several of the bones of the 
joint, and it is only those who are able to realize the importance of its 
action to the perfect fulfillment of the function of propulsion by the 
hind ]eg, who can comprehend the gravity of the only prognosis which 
can be justified by the facts of the case — a prognosis which is essen- 
tially a sentence of serious import in respect to the future usefulness 
and value of the animal. For no diseases, if we except those acute in- 
flammatory attacks upon vital organs to which the patient succumbs 
at once, are more destructive to the usefulness and value of a horse 
than a confirmed spavin. Serious in its inception, serious in its prog- 
ress, it is an ailment which, when once established, becomes a fixed 
condition which there are no known means of dislodging. The perios- 
titis, of which it is nearly always a termination, is usually the effect of 
a traumatic cause operating upon the complicated structure of the 
hock, such as a sprain which has torn a ligamentous insertion and lac- 
erated some of its fibers j or a violent effort in jumping, galloping, or 



288 

trotting, to which the victim has been compelled by the torture of whip 
and spur while in use as a gambling implement by a sporting owner, 
under the pretext of " improving his breed; "or the extra exertion of 
starting an inordinately heavy load ; or an effort to recover his balance 
from a misstep ; or slipping upon an icy surface ; or sliding with worn 
shoes upon a bad pavement, and other kindred causes. And we can 
repeat here what we have before said concerning bones, in respect to 
heredity as a cause. As to this, our own experience is an authority — 
we do know of equine families in which this condition has been 
transmitted from generation to generation, and animals otherwise of 
excellent comformation rendered valueless by the misfortune of a con- 
genital spavin. 

The evil is one of the most serious character for other reasons, among 
which may be specified the slowness of their development and the iu- 
sidiousuess of their growth. Certain indefinite phenomena and alarm- 
ing changes and incidents furnish usually the only portents of ap- 
proaching trouble. Among these signs may be mentioned a peculiar 
posture assumed by the patient while at rest, and becoming at length 
so habitual that it can not fail to suggest the action of some hidden 
cause, tending to some undeterminable result. The posture is due to the 
action of the adductor muscles, the lower part of the leg being carried 
inward, and the heel of the shoe resting on the toe of the opposite foot. 
Then an unwillingness may be noticed in the animal to move from one 
side of the stall to the other. When driven he will travel, but stiffly, 
and with a sort of sidelong gait between the shafts, and after finishing 
his task and resting again in his stall, will pose with the toe pointing 
forward, the heel raised, and the hock flexed. Some little heat and a con- 
siderable amount of inflammation soon appears. The slight lameness 
which appears when backing out of the stall ceases to be noticeable 
after a short distance of travel. 

A minute examination of the hock will then begin to reveal the exist- 
ence of the lesion, in a bony enlargement which may be detected just at 
the junction of the hock and the cannon bone, on the inside and a little 
in front, and tangible both to sight and touch. This enlargement or 
lone spavin grows rapidly and persistently and soon acquires dimen- 
sions which render it impossible to doubt any longer its existence or 
its nature. Once established, its development continues under con- 
ditions of progress similar to those to which we have before alluded, 
in speaking of other like affections. The argument obtained by some 
that because these bony deposits are frequently fouud on both hocks 
they are not spavins, is fallacious. If they are discovered on both 
hocks, it proves merely that they are not confined to a single joint. 

The characteristic lameness of bone spavin, as it affects the motion of 
of the hock joint, presents two aspects. In one class of cases it is most 
pronounced when the horse is cool, in the other when he is at work. 
The first is characterized by the fact that when the animal travels th§ 



289 

toe first touches the ground, aud the heel descends more slowly, the mo- 
tion of flexion at the hock taking place stiffly, and accompanied by a 
dropping of the hip on the opposite side. In the other case the peculi- 
arity is that the lameness increases as the horse travels ; that when he 
stops he seeks to favor the lame leg, and when he resumes his work 
soon after he steps much on his toe, as in the first variety. 

As with sidebones, though for a somewhat different reason, the di- 
mensions of the spavin aud the degree of the lameness do not seem to 
bear any determinate relation, the most pronounced symptoms at times 
accompanying a very diminutive growth. But the distinction between 
the two varieties of cool aud warm may easily be determined by remem- 
bering the fact that in a majority of cases the first, or cool, is due to a 
simple exostosis, while the second is generally connected with disease 
of the articulation, such as ulceration of the articular surface — a con- 
dition which, as we proceed further, will meet our attention when we 
reach the subject of springhalt. 

Having thus fully cousidered the history of bone spavin we are pre- 
pared to give due weight to the reasons which exist for the adverse 
prognosis which we must usually feel compelled to pronounce when 
encountering it in practice, as well as to realize the value of an early 
discovery of the symptoms which denote its invasion of the organism. 
It is but seldom, however, that the necessary advantage of this early 
knowledge can be secured, aud when the true nature of the trouble has 
become apparent it is usually too late to resort to the remedial meas- 
ures which, if duly forewarned, a skillful practitioner might have em- 
ployed. We are fully persuaded that but for the loss of the time wasted 
in the treatment of purely imaginary ailments very many cases of bone 
spavin might be arrested in their incipiency and their victims preserved 
for years of comfort for themselves and valuable labor to their owners. 
' To consider a hypothetical case: An early discovery of lameness has 
been made; that is, the existence of an acute inflammation — of perios- 
titis — has been detected. The increased temperature of the parts has 
been observed, with the stiffened gait and the characteristic pose of the 
limb, and the question is proposed for solution, "What is to be done?" 
Even with only these comparatively doubtful symptoms — doubtful with 
the non-expert — we should direct our treatment to the hock in prefer- 
ence to any other joint, since of all the joints of the hind leg it is this 
which is most liable to be attacked, a natural result from its peculiari- 
ties of structure and function. And in answer to the query, ''What is 
the first indication?" we should answer rest — emphatically, and as an 
essential condition, rest. Whether only threatened, suspected, or posi- 
tively diseased, the animal must be wholly released from labor, and it 
must be no partial or temporary quiet of a few days. In all stages and 
conditions of the disease, whether the spavin is nothing more than a 
simple exostosis, or whether accompanied by the complication of ar- 
thritis, there must be a total suspension of effort until the danger is 
11035—19 



290 

over. Less than a month's quiet ought not to be thought of — the longer 
the better. 

Good results may also be expected from local applications. The va- 
rious lotions which cool the parts, the astringeuts which lower the ten- 
sion of the blood vessels, the tepid fomentations which accelerate the 
circulation in the eugorged capillaries, the liniments of various compo- 
sition, the stimulants, the opiate anodynes, the sedative preparations 
of aconite, the alterative frictions of iodine — all these are recommended 
and prescribed by one or another. We prefer counter-irritants, for the 
simple reason, among many others, that they tend by the promptness 
of their action to prevent by anticipation the formation of the bony 
deposits. The lameness will often yield to the blistering action of can- 
tharides, in the form of ointment or liniment, and to the alterative 
preparations of iodine or mercury. And if the owner of a spavined 
horse really succeeds in removing the lameness, he has accomplished 
all that he is justified in hoping for ; beyond this let him be well per- 
suaded that a "cure" is impossible. 

For this reason, moreover, he will do well to be on his guard against 
the rjatented " cures" which the traveling horse doctor may urge upon 
his credulity, and withhold his faith from the circular of the agent who 
will deluge him with references and certificates. It is possible that 
nostrums may in some exceptional instances prove serviceable, but the 
greater number of them are capable of producing only injurious effects. 
The removal of the bony tumor can not be accomplished by any such 
means, and if a trial of these unknown compounds should be followed 
by complications no worse than the establishment of one or more ugly, 
hairless cicatrices, it will be well for both the horse and his owner. 

Rest and counter-irritation, with the proper medicaments, constitute, 
then, the prominent points in the treatment designed for the relief of 
bone spavin. Yet there are cases in which all the agencies and methods 
referred to seem to lack effectiveness and fail to produce satisfactory 
results. Either the rest has been prematurely interrupted, or the blisters 
have failed to rightly modify the serous infiltration, or the case in hand 
has some undiscernible characteristics which seem to have rendered the 
disease neutral to the agencies employed against it. An indication of 
more energetic means is then presented, and free cauterization with the 
fire-iron becomes necessary. 

At this point a word of explanation in reference to this operation of 
firing maybe appropriate for the satisfaction of any among our readers 
who may entertain an exaggerated idea of its severity and possible 
cruelty. 

The operation is one of simplicity, but is nevertheless one which, in 
order to secure its benefits, must be reserved for times and occasions of 
which only the best knowledge and highest discretion should be allowed 
to judge. It is not the mere application of a hot iron to a given part of 
the body which constitutes the operation of firing. It is the methodical 



291 

and scientific introduction of heat into the structure with a view to a given 
effect upon a,diseased organ or tissue by an expert surgeon. The first 
is one of the degrees of mere burning. The other is scientific cauteriza- 
tion, and is a surgical manipulation which should be committed exclu- 
sively to the practised hand of the veterinary surgeon. 

Either firing alone or stimulation with blisters is of great efficacy for 
the relief of lameness from bone spavin. Failure to produce relief after 
a few applications and after allowiuga sufficient interval of rest, should 
be followed by a second, or, if needed, a third firing. 

In case of further failure there is a reserve of certain special opera- 
tions which have been tried and recommended, among which those of 
tarsal tenotomy, periosteotomy, the division of nervous branches, etc., 
may be mentioned. These, however, belong to the peculiar domain of 
the veterinary practitioner, and need not now engage our attention. 

FBACTUKES. 

In technical language a fracture is a " solution of continuity in the 
structure or substance of a bone," and it ranks among the most serious 
of the lesions to which the horse — or any animal — can be subject. It 
is a subject of special interest to veterinarians, and to horse owners as 
well, in view of the variety of forms in which it may occur, as well as 
of the loss of time to which it subjects the patient, and the consequent 
suspension of his earning capacity. Though of less serious consequence 
in the horse than in man, it is always a matter of grave import. It is 
always slow and tedious in healing, and is frequently of doubtful and 
unsatisfactory result. 

This solution of continuity may take place in two principal ways. In 
the most numerous instances it includes the total thickness of the bone 
and is a complete fracture. In other cases it involves a portion only of 
the thickness of the bone, and for that reason is described as incomplete. 
If the bone is divided into two separate portions, and the soft parts 
have received no injury, the fracture is a simple one ; or it becomes 
compound if the soft parts have suffered laceration, and comminuted if 
the bones have been crushed or ground into fragments, many or few. 
The direction of the break also determines its further classification. 
Broken at a right angle it is transverse; at a different angle it becomes 
oblique, and it may be longitudinal or lengthwise. In a complete frac- 
ture, especially of the oblique kind, there is a condition of great impor- 
tance in respect to its effect upon the ultimate result of the treatment, 
in the fact that from various causes, such as muscular contractions or 
excessive motion, the bony fragments do not maintain their mutual 
coaptation, but become separated at the ends, and this fact has made 
it necessary to add another descriptive term in the words — with dis- 
placement. And this term again suggests its negative, and introduces 
the fracture without displacement, when the facts justify that descrip- 
tion. Again, a fracture may be intraarticular or extraarticular, as it 



292 

extends within a joint or otherwise, and once more, intra-periosteal, 
when the periosteum remain intact. And, finally, there is no absolute 
limit to the use of descriptive terminology in the case. 

The condition of displacement is largely influential in determining 
the question of treatment, and as affecting the final result of a case of 
fracture. This, however, is dependent upon its location or whether its 
seat be in one or more of the axes of the bone, in its length, its breadth, 
its thickness, or its circumference. An incomplete fracture may also 
be either simple or comminuted, the periosteum, in the latter case when 
it is intact, keeping the fragments together, the fracture in that case 
belonging to the intra periosteal class. At times, also, there is only a 
simple fissure or split in the bone, making a condition of much difficulty 
of diagnosis. 

Two varieties of originating cause may be recognized in cases of frac- 
ture. They are the predisposing and the occasional. As to the first, 
different species of animals differ in the degree of their liability. That 
of the dog is greater than that of the horse, and, in horses, the various 
questions of age, the mode of labor, the season of the year, the portion 
of the body most exposed, and the existence of ailments, local and gen- 
eral, are all to be taken into account. 

Among horses, those employed in heavy draught work or that are 
driven over bad roads, are more exposed than light-draught or saddle 
horses, and animals of different ages are not equally liable. Dogs and 
young horses, with those which have become sufficiently aged for their 
bones to have acquired an enhanced degree of frangibility, are more lia- 
ble than those which have not exceeded the time of their adult prime. 
The season of the year is undoubtedly, though in an incidental way, 
an important factor in the problem of the etiology of these accidents, 
for though they may be observed at all times, it is duriug the months 
when the slippery condition of the icy roads renders it difficult for both 
men and beasts to keep their feet that they occur most frequently. The 
long bones, those especially which belong to the extremities, are most 
frequently the seat of fractures, from the circumstance of their super- 
ficial position; their exposure to contact and collision, and the "violent 
muscular efforts iuvolved both in their constant rapid movement and 
their labor in the shafts or at the pole of heavy and heavily laden car- 
riages. 

The relation between sundry idiosyncrasies and diatheses and a 
liability to fractures is too constant and well established a pathological 
fact to need more than a passing reference. The history of rachitis, of 
melanosis, and of osteo-porosis, as related to an abnormal frangibility of 
the bones, is a part of our common medical knowledge. There are few 
persons who have not kuowu of cases among their friends of frequent 
and almost spontaneous fractures, or at least of such as seem to be pro- 
duced by the slightest and most inadequate violence, and there is no 
tangible reason for doubting an analogous condition in individuals of 



293 

the equine constitution. Among local predisposing affections mention 
must not be omitted of such bony diseases as caries, tuberculosis, and 
others of the same class. 

Occasional or u efficient " causes of fracture are in most instances ex- 
ternal traumatisms, as violent contacts, collisions, falls, etc., or sud- 
den muscular contractions. These external accidents are various in 
their character, and are usually associated with quick muscular exer- 
tion. A violent, ineffectual effort to move too heavy a load ; a semi- 
spasmodic bracing of the frame to avoid a fall or resist a pressure ; a 
quick jump to escape a blow; stopping too suddenly after speeding; 
struggling to liberate a foot from a rail, perhaps to be thrown in the 
effort — all these are familiar and easy examples of accidents happen- 
ing hourly, by which our equine servants become sufferers. We may 
add to these the fracture of the bones of the vertebra, occurring when 
casting a patient for the purpose of undergoing a surgical operation, 
quite as much the result of muscular contraction as of a preexisting 
diseased condition of the bones. A fracture occurring under these cir- 
cumstances may be called with propriety indirect, while one which 
has resulted from a blow or a fall differently caused is of the direct kind. 

We now return to the first items in our classification of the varieties 
of lameness, for the purpose of bringing them in turn under an orderly 
review, and our first examination will include those which belong to the 
first category, or the complete kind. Irregularity in the performance of 
the functions of the apparatus to which the fractured bone belongs is 
a necessary consequence of the existing lesion, and this is lameness. If 
the broken bone belongs to one of the extremities, the impossibility of 
the performance of its natural function, in sustaining the weight of the 
body and contributing to the act of locomotion, is usually complete, 
though the degree of powerlessuess will vary according to the kind of 
fracture and the bone which is injured. For example, a fracture of the 
cannon bone without displacement, or of one of the phalanges which 
are surrounded and sustained by a complex fibrous structure, is, in a 
certain degree, not incompatible with some amount of resting of the 
foot. But on the contrary, if the shank bone, or that of the forearm 
be the implicated member, it would be very difficult for the leg to exer- 
cise any agency whatever in the support of the body. And in a frac- 
ture of the lower jaw it would be obviously futile to expect it to con- 
tribute materially to the mastication of food. 

A fracture seldom occurs which is not accompanied with a degree of 
deformity, greater or less, of the region or the leg affected. This is 
due to the exudation of the blood iuto the meshes of the surrounding 
tissues and to the displacement which occurs between the fragments of 
the bones, with subsequently the swelling which follows the inflamma- 
tion of the surrounding tissues. The character of the deformity will 
mainly depend upon the manner in which the displacement occurs. 

In a normal state of things the legs perform their movements with 



294 

the joints as their only centers or bases of action, with no participation 
of intermediate points, while with a fracture the flexibility and motion 
which will be observed at unnatural points are among the most strongly 
characteristic signs of the lesion. No one need be told that when the 
shaft of a limb is seen to bend midway between the joints, with the 
lower portion swinging freely, that the le^; is broken. But there are 
still some conditions where the excessive mobility is not easy to detect 
with certainty. Such are the cases where'the fracture exists in a short 
bone, near a movable joint, or in a bone of a region where several 
short and small bones are uuited in a group, or even in a long bone 
where its situation is such that the muscular covering prevents the vis- 
ible manifestation of the symptom. 

If the situation of a fracture precludes its discovery by means of 
this abnormal flexibility, other detective methods remain. And after 
all there is one decisive sign which, though it may not avail in every 
case, as it does not, is iu cases where its testimony can be secured ab- 
solute and positive' beyond question. This is crepitation, or the pecu- 
liar effect which is produced by the friction of the fractured surfaces 
one against another. Though discerned by the organs of heariug it 
can scarcely be called a sound, for the grating of the parts as the 
rubbing takes place is more felt than heard, but there is no mistaking 
its import in cases favorable for the application of the test. The con- 
ditions in which it is not available are those of incomptete fracture, in 
which the mobility of the parts is lacking, and those in which the whole 
array of phenomena are usually obscure. To obtain the benefit of this 
pathognomonic sign requires deliberate, careful, and gentle manipula- 
tion. Sometimes the slightest of movements will be sufficient for its 
development, after much rougher handliug has failed to discover it. 
Perhaps the failure in the latter case is due to a sort of defensive 
spasmodic rigidity caused by the pain resulting from the rude interfer- 
ence. 

More or less reactive fever is a usual accompaniment of a fracture, 
and an ecchymosis of the parts is but a natural occurrence, more easily 
discovered in animals possessing a light colored and delicate skin than 
in those of the opposite character. 

There are difficulties in the way of the diagnosis of an incomplete 
fracture, even sometimes when there is a degree of impairment in the 
function of locomotion, with evidences of pain and swelling at the seat 
of lesion. There should then be a careful examination for evidences of 
a blow or other violence sufficient to accouut for the fracture, though 
very often a suspicion of its existence can only be converted into a cer- 
tainty by a minute history of the patient if it can be obtained up to the 
moment of the occurrence of the injury. A diagnosis ought not to be hast- 
ily pronounced, and where good ground for suspicion exists it ought not 
to be rejected upon any evidence less than the best. Serious and fatal 
complications are too often recorded of the results following careless cou- 



295 

elusions in similar cases, among which we may refer to one instance of 
a complete fracture manifesting itself in an animal during the act of 
rising up iu his stall after a decision had been pronounced that he had 
no fracture at all. 

Fractures are of course liable to complications, those especially, from 
the nature of the case, which are of a traumatic character, such as ex- 
tensive lacerations, tearing of tissues, punctures, contusions, etc. But 
unless these are in communication with the fracture itself the indica- 
tion is to treat them simply as independent lesions upon other parts of 
the body. A traumatic emphysema will at times cause trouble, and 
abscesses, more or less deep and diffused, may follow. In some cases 
small bony fragments from a comminuted fracture, becoming loose 
and acting as foreign bodies, may give rise to troublesome fistulous 
tracts. A frequent complication is hemorrhage, which often becomes of 
serious consequence. A fracture in close proximity to a joint may be 
accompanied by dangerous inflammations of important organs, and in- 
duce an attack of pneumonia, pleurisy, arthritis, etc., as well as lux- 
ations or dislocations, and the more so if situated near the chest. Gan- 
grene, as a consequence of contusions or of hemorrhage or of an imped- 
iment to the circulation, caused by unskillfully applied apparatus, must 
not be overlooked among the occasional incidents ; nor must lockjaw, 
which is not an uncommon occurrence. Even founder or laminitis has 
been met with as the result of forced and long continued immobility 
of the feet in the standing posture, as one of the involvements of una- 
voidably protracted treatment. 

When a simple fracture has been properly treated and the broken 
ends of the bone have been securely held in coaptation one of two 
things will occur. Either — and this is the more common event — there 
will be a union of the two ends by a solid cicatrix, the callus, or the 
ends will continue separated or become only partially united by an in- 
termediate fibrous structure. In the first instance the fracture is con- 
solidated, or united, iu the second there is a false articulation, ovpseudo^ 
arthrosis. 

The time required for a firm union or true consolidation of a fracture 
will vary with the character of the bone affected, the age and constitu- 
tion of the patient, and the general conditions of the case. The union 
will be perfected earlier in a young than in an adult animal, and sooner 
in the latter than in the aged, and a general healthy condition is of course, 
in every respect, an advantage. 

The mode of cicatrization, or method of repair in lesions of the bones, 
has been a subject of much study among investigators in pathology, and 
has elicited various expressions of opinion from those high in authority. 
But the weight of evidence and preponderance of opiniou are about 
settled in favor of the theory that the law of reparation is the same for 
both the hard and the soft tissues. In one case a simple exudation of 
material, with the proper organization of newly formed tissue, will 



296 

bring about a union by the first intention, and in another the work will 
be accompanied by suppuration, or the union by the second intention, 
a process so familiar in the repair of the soft structures by granulation. 

Considering the process in its simplest form, in a case in which it 
advances without interruption or complication to a favorable result it 
may probably be correctly described in this wise : 

On the occurrence of the injury an effusion of blood takes place be- 
tween the ends of the bone. The coagulation of the fluid soon follows, 
and this, after a few days, undergoes absorption. There is then an 
excess of inflammation in the surrounding structure, which soon spreads 
to the bony tissue, when a true ostitis is established, and the compact 
tissue of the bone becomes the seat of a new vascular organization, and 
of a certain exudation of plastic lymph, appearing between the peri- 
osteum and the external surface of the bone, as well as on the inner 
side of the medullary cavity. After a few days the ends of the bone 
thus surrounded by this exudate become involved in it, and the lymph, 
becoming vascular, is soon transformed into cartilaginous, and in due 
time into bony tissue. 

Thus the time required for the consolidation of the fractured seg- 
ments is divisible into two distinct periods. In the first they are sur- 
rounded by an external bony ring, and the medullary cavity is closed 
by a bony plug or stopper, constituting the period of the provisional 
callus. This is followed by the period of permanent callus, during which 
the process is going forward of converting the cartilaginous into the 
osseous form. 

The restorative process is sooner completed in the carnivorous than 
in the herbivorous tribes. In the former the temporary callus may at- 
tain sufficient fineness of consistency for the careful use of the limb 
within four weeks, but with the latter a period of from six weeks to two 
months is not too long to allow before removing the supporting appa- 
ratus from the limb. 

This in general terms represents the fact when the resources of na- 
ture have not been thwarted by untoward accidents, such as a want of 
vigor in the constitution of the patient or a lack of skill on the part of 
the practitioner, and especially when, from any cause, the bony frag- 
ments have not been kept in a state of perfect immobility and the con- 
stant friction has prevented the osseous union of the two portions. Fail- 
ures and misfortunes are always more thau possible, and instead of a 
solid and practicable bony union the sequel of the accident is sometimes 
& false joint, composed of mere flexible cartilage, a poor pseudoarthrosis. 
The explanation of this appears to be that, first, the sharp edges of the 
ends of the bone disappear by becoming rounded at their extremeties by 
frictiou and polishing against each other. Then follows an exudation 
of a plastic nature which becomes transformed into a cartilaginous layer 
of a rough articular aspect. In this bony nuclei soon appear, and the 
lymph secreted between the segments thus transformed, instead of be- 



297 

coming truly ossified, is changed into a sort of fibrocartilaginous pouch 
or capsular sac, in which a somewhat albuminous secretion, or pseudo- 
synovia, permits the movement to take place. Most commonly, how- 
ever, in our animals, the union of the bony fragments is obtained wholly 
through the medium of a layer of fibrous tissue, and it is because the 
union has been accomplished by a ligamentous formation only that mo- 
tion becomes practicable. 

The prognosis in a case of fracture in an animal is one of the gravest 
vital import to the patient, and therefore of serious pecuniary concern 
to his owner. The period has not long elapsed when to have received 
such a hurt was quite equivalent to undergoing a sentence of death for 
the suffering animal, and perhaps to-day a similar verdict is pronounced 
in many cases in which the exercise of a little mechanical ingenuity, 
with a due amount of careful nursing, might secure a contrary result 
and insure the return of the patient to his former condition of soundness 
and usefulness. Considered per se, a fracture in an animal is in fact no 
less amenable to treatment than the same description of injury in any 
other living being. But the question of the propriety and expediency 
of treatment is dependent upon certain specific points of collateral con- 
sideration. 

First. The nature of the lesion itself is a point of paramount impor- 
tance. A simple fracture occurring in a bone where the ends can be 
firmly secured in coaptation, presents the most favorable conditions for 
successful treatment. If it be that of a long bone it will be the less 
serious if situated at or near the middle of its length than if it were in 
close proximity to a joint, from the fact that perfect immobility can 
rarely, in the latter case, be secured without incurring the risk of sub- 
sequent rigidity of the joint. 

A simple is always less serious than a compound fracture. A com- 
minuted is always more dangerous than a simple, and a transverse 
break is easier to treat than one which is oblique. The most serious are 
those which are situated on parts of the body iu which it is difficult to 
secure perfect immobility, and especially those which are accompanied 
by severe contusions and lacerations in the soft parts; the protrusion of 
fragments through the skin ; the division of blood vessels by the broken 
ends of the bone ; the existence of an articulation near the point to 
which inflammation is likely to extend; the luxation of a fragment of 
the bone ; laceration of the periosteum ; the presence of a large number 
of bony particles, the result of the crushing of the bone — all these are 
circumstances which discourage a favorable prognosis, and weigh against 
the hope of saving the patient for future usefulness. 

Fractures which may be accounted curable are those which are not 
conspicuously visible, as those of the ribs, where displacements are 
either very limited or do not occur, the parts being kept in situ by the 
nature of their position, the shape 'of the bones, the articulations they 
form with the vertebra, the sternum, or their cartilages of prolonga* 



298 

tion ; those of transverse processes of the lumbar vertebra ; those of 
the bones of the face; those of the ilium ; ami that of the coffin bones. 
To continue the category, they are evidently curable when their posi- 
tion and the character of the patient contribute to aid the treatment. 
Those of the cranium, in the absence of cerebral lesions; those of the 
jaws; of the ribs, with displacement ; of the hip ; and those of the bone 
of the leg in movable regions, but where their vertical position admits 
of perfect coaptation. 

On the contrary, a compound, complicated, or comminuted fracture, 
in whatever region it may be situated, may be accounted incurable. 

In treating fractures time is an important element and " delays are 
dangerous." Those of recent occurrence unite more easily and more 
regularly than older ones. 

Second. As a general rule, fractures are less serious in animals of the 
smaller species than in those of more bulky dimensions. This influence 
of species will be readily appreciated when we realize that the difficul- 
ties involved in the treatment of the latter class have hardly any exist- 
ence in connection with the former. The difference in weight and size, 
and consequent facility in handling, and making the necessary applica- 
tions of dressings and other appliances for the purpose of securing the 
indispensable immobility of the parts, and usually a less degree of un- 
easiness in the deportment of the patients are considerations in this 
connection of great weight. 

Third. In respect to the utilization of the animal, the most obvious 
point in estimating the gravity of the case in a fracture accident is the 
certainty of the total loss of the services of the patient during treat- 
ment — certainly for a considerable period of time, perhaps permanently. 
For example, the fracture of the jaw of a steer just fattening for the 
shambles will involve a heavier loss than a similar accident to a horse. 
Usually the fracture of the bones of the extremities in a horse is a very 
serious casualty, the more so proportionately as the higher region of the 
limb is affected. In working animals it is exceedingly difficult to treat 
a fracture in such a manner as to restore a limb to its original perfec- 
tion of movement. A fracture of a single bone of an extremity in a 
breeding stallion or mare will not necessarily impair their value as 
breeders. Other specifications under this head, though pertinent and 
more or less interesting, may be omitted. 

Fourth. Age and temper are important factors of cure. A young, 
growing, robust patient, whose vis vitce is active, is amenable to treat- 
ment which one with a waning constitution and past mature energies 
would be unable to endure, and a docile, quiet disposition will act co- 
operatively with remedial measures which would be neutralized by the 
fractious opposition of a peevish and intractable sufferer. 

The fulfillment of three indications is indispensable in all fractures. 
The first is the reduction, or the replacement, of the parts as nearly as 
possible in their normal position. The second is their retention in that 



299 

position for a period sufficient for the formation of the provisional cal- 
lus, and the third, which in fact is but an incident of the second, the 
careful avoidance of any accideuts or causes of miscarriage which might 
disturb the curative process. 

In reference to the first consideration, it must be remembered that 
the accident may befall the patient at a distance from his home, and 
his removal becomes the first duty to be attended to. Of course this 
must be doue as carefully as possible. If he can be treated on the spot 
so much the better, though this is seldom practicable, and the method 
of removal becomes the question calling for settlement. But two ways 
present themselves — he must either walk or be carried. If the first, it 
is needless to say that overy caution must be observed in order to 
obviate additional pain for the suffering animal, and to avoid any 
aggravation of the injury. Led slowly, and with partial support if prac- 
ticable, the journey will not always involve untoward results. If he is 
carried it must be by means of a wagon, a truck, or an ambulance ; the 
latter, being designed and adapted to the purpose, would of course be 
the preferable vehicle. As a precaution which should never be over- 
looked, a temporary dressing should first be applied. This may be so 
done as for the time to answer all the purpose of the permanent adjust- 
ment and bandaging. Without thus securing the patient, a fracture of 
an inferior degree may be transformed to one of the severest kind, and, 
indeed a curable changed to an incurable injury. We recall a case in 
which a fast trotting horse, after running away in a fright caused by 
the whistle of a locomotive, was found on the road limping with 
excessive lameness in the off fore leg, and walked with comparative 
ease some 2 miles to a stable before being seen by a surgeon. His im- 
mediate removal in an ambulance was advised, but before that vehicle 
could be procured the horse laid down, and upon being made to get 
upon his feet was found with a well-marked comminuted fracture of the 
os suffraginis, with considerable displacement. The patient, however, 
after long treatment, made a comparatively good recovery and though 
with a large bony deposit, a ringbone, was able to trot among the 
forties. 

The two obvious indications in cases of fracture are reduction, or re- 
placement, and retention. 

In au incomplete fracture, where there is no displacement, the neces- 
sity of reduction does not exist. With the bone kept in place by an in- 
tact periosteum, and the fragments secured by the uninjured fibrous and 
ligamentous structure which surrounds them, there is no dislocation 
to correct. It is also at times rendered impossible by the seat of the 
fracture itself, by its dimensions alone, or by the resistance arising from 
the muscular contraction excited by the surgical manipulation. This 
is illustrated even in small animals, as in dogs, by the exceeding diffi- 
culty encountered in bringing the ends of a broken femur or humerus 
together, Ihe muscular contraction being even in these animals suffi- 
ciently forcible to renew the displacement. 



300 

It is generally, therefore, only fractures of the long bones, and then 
at points not in close proximity to the trunk, that may be considered 
to be amenable to reduction. It is true that some of the more super- 
ficial bones, as those of the head, of the pelvis, and of the thoracic walls 
may in some cases require special manipulations and appliances for 
their reteution in their normal positions, but the treatment of these and 
of a fractured leg can not be the same. 

The methods of accomplishing reduction vary with the features of 
each case, the manipulations being necessarily modified to meet chang- 
ing circumstances. If the displacement is in the thickness of the bone, 
as in transverse fracture, the manipulation of reduction consists in 
applying a steady pressure upon one of the fragments, while the other 
is kept steady in its place, the object of the pressure being the rees- 
tablishment of the exact coincidence of the two bony surfaces. If the 
displacement has taken place at an angle it will be sufficient in order 
to effect the reduction to press upon the summit or apex of the angle 
until its disappearance indicates that the parts have been brought into 
coaptation. This method is often practiced in the treatment of a frac- 
tured rib. In a longitudinal fracture, or when the fragments are 
pressed together by the contraction of the muscles to which they give 
insertion until they so overlap as to correspond by certaiu points of 
their circumference, the reduction is to be accomplished by effecting 
the movements of extension, counter- extension, and coaptation. Extension 
is accomplished by making traction upon the lower portion of the limb. 
Counter-extension consists in firmly holding or confining the upper or 
body portion in such a manner that it shall not be affected by the trac- 
tion applied to the lower; in simpler language, holding it motionless 
against the force exercised in the extension. In other words, the 
operator, grasping the limb below the fracture, draws it down or away 
from the trunk, while he seeks, not to draw away, but simply to hold 
still the upper portion until the broken ends of bone are brought to their 
natural relative positions when the coaptation, which is thus affected, 
has only to be made permanent by the proper dressings to perfect the 
reduction. 

In treating fractures in small animals the strength of the hand is 
usually sufficient for the required manipulations. In the fracture of 
the forearm of a dog, for example, while the upper segment is firmly 
held by one hand, the lower may be grasped by the other and the bone 
itself made to serve the purpose of a lever to bring about the desired 
coaptation. In such a case that is sufficient to overcome the muscu- 
lar contraction and correct the overlapping or other malposition of the 
bones. If, however, the resistance can not be overcome in this mode, 
the upper segment may be committed to an assistant for the manage- 
ment of the counter extension, leaving to the operator the free use of 
both hands for the further manipulation of the case. 

But if the reduction of fractures in small animals is an easy task, it 



301 

is far from being so when a large animal is the patient, whose muscular 
force is largely greater than that of several men combined. In such a 
case resort must be had not only to superior numbers for the necessary 
force, but in many cases to mechanical aids. A reference to the mode 
of proceeding in a case of fracture with displacement of the fore arm of 
a horse will illustrate the matter. The patient is first to be carefully 
cast, on the uninjured side, with ropes, or a broad leather strap about 
18 feet long, passed under and around his body and under the axilla of 
the fractured limb and secured at a point opposite to the animal and 
toward his back. This will form the mechanical means of couuter ex- 
tension. Another rope will then be placed around the inferior part of 
the leg below the point of fracture, with which to produce extension, 
and this will sometimes be furnished with a block or pullies, in order 
to augment the power when necessary, and there is, in fact, always an 
advautage in their use, on the side of steadiness and uniformity, as well 
as of increased power. It is secured around the fetlock or the coronet, 
or what is better, above the knee and nearer the point of fracture, and 
is committed to assistants. The traction on this should be firm, uni- 
form, and slow, without relaxing or jerking, while the operator carefully 
watches the process. If the bone is superficially situated he is able to 
judge by the eye of any changes that may occur in the form or length 
of the parts under traction, and discovering at the moment of its hap- 
pening the restoration of symmetry in the disturbed region, he gently 
but firmly manipulates the place until all appearance of severed con- 
tinuity have vanished. Sometimes the fact and the instant of restora- 
tion are indicated by a peculiar sound, or "click," as the ends of the 
bone slip into contact, to await the next step of the restorative pro- 
cedure. 

The process is the same when the bones are covered with thick mus- 
cular masses, excepting that it is attended with greater difficulties, from 
the fact that the finger must be substituted for the eye, and the taxis 
must take the place of the sight, and the result naturally becomes more 
uncertain. 

It frequently happens that perfect coaptation is prevented by the in- 
terposition between the bony surfaces of substances, such as a small 
fragment of detached bone or a clot of blood, and sometimes the extreme 
obliquity of the fracture is the opposing cause, by permitting the bones 
to slip out of place. These are difficulties which can not always be 
overcome, even in small-sized animals, and still it is only when they are 
mastered that a correct consolidation can be looked for. Yet withoat 
it the continuity between the fragments will be by a deformed callus, 
the union will leave a shortened, crooked or angular limb, and a disabled 
animal. 

If timely assistance can be obtained, and the reduction accomplished 
immediately after the occurrence of the accident, that is the best time 
for it. But if it can not be attended to uutil inflammation has become 



302 

established and the parts have become swollen and painful, time must 
be allowed for the subsidence of these symptoms before attempting the 
operation. A spasmodic muscular contraction which sometimes inter- 
poses a difficulty may be easily overcome by subjecting the patient to 
general anesthesia, and need not, therefore, cause any loss of time. A 
tendency to this may also be overcome by the use of sedatives and anti- 
phlogistic remedies. 

The reduction of the fracture having been accomplished, the problem 
which follows is that of retention. The parts which have been restored 
to their natural position must be kept there, without disturbance or 
agitation, until the perfect formation of a callus, and it is here that 
ample latitude exists for the exercise of ingenuity and skill by the sur- 
geon in the contrivance of the necessary apparatus. One of the most 
important of the conditions which are available by the surgeon in treat- 
ing human patients is denied to the veterinarian in the management of 
those which belong to the animal tribes. This is position. The intel- 
ligence of the human patient cooperates with the instructions of the 
surgeon, but with the animal sufferer there is a continual antagonism 
between the parties, and the forced extension and fatiguing position 
which must for a considerable period be maintained as a condition of 
restoration require special and effective appliances to insure successful 
results. To obtain complete immobility is scarcely possible, and the 
surgeon must be content to reach a point as near as possible to that 
which is unattainable. For this reason, as will subsequently be seen, the 
use of slings and the restraint of patients in very narrow stalls is much 
to be preferred to the practice sometimes recommended, of allowing en- 
tire freedom of motion by turning them loose in box stalls. Temporary 
and movable apparatus are not usually of difficult use in veterinary 
practice, but the restlessness of the patients and their unwillingness to 
submit quietly to the changing of the dressings render it obligatory to 
have recourse to permanent and immovable bandages, which should 
be retained without disturbance until the process of consolidation is 
complete. 

The materials composing the retaining apparatus consist of oakum, 
bandages, and splints, with an agglutinating compound which forms a 
species of cement by which the different constituents are blended into 
a consistent mass to be spread upon the surface covering the locality 
of the fracture. Its components are black pitch, rosin, and Venice tur- 
pentine, blended by heat. The dressing may be applied directly to the 
skin, or a covering of thin linen may be interposed. A putty made 
with powdered chalk and the white of egg is recommended for small 
animals, though a mixture of sugar of lead and burnt alum with the 
albumen is preferred by others. Another formula is spirits of camphor, 
Goulard's extract and albumen. Another recommendation is to saturate 
the oakum and bandages with an adhesive solution formed with gum 
arabic, dextrine, flour paste, or starch. This is advised particularly 



303 

for small animals. Dextrine mixed, while warm, with burnt alum and 
alcohol cools and solidifies into a stony consistency, and is preferable to 
plaster of Paris, which is less friable and has less solidity, besides beiug 
heavier and requiring constant additions as it becomes older. Starch 
and plaster of Paris form another good compound. 

In applying the dressing the leg is usually padded with a cushion of 
oakum, thick and soft enough to equalize the irregularities of the sur- 
face and to form a bedding for the protection of the skin from chafing. 
Over this the splints are placed. The material for these is, variously, 
pasteboard, thin wood, bark, laths, gutta percha, strips of thin metal, 
as tin or perhaps sheet iron. These should be of sufficient length not 
only to cover the region of the fracture, but to extend sufficiently 
above and below to render the immobility more complete than in the 
surrounding joints. The splints, again, are covered with cloth ban- 
dages, linen preferably, soaked in a glutinous moisture. These ban- 
dages are to be carefully applied, with a perfect condition of lightness. 
They are usually made to embrace the entire length of the leg, in order 
to avoid the possibility of interference with the circulation of the ex- 
tremity, as well as for the prevention of chafing. They should be rolled 
from the lower part of the leg upwards, and carefully secured against 
loosening. In some instances suspensory bandages are recommended, 
but excepting for small animals our experience does not justify a con- 
currence in the recommendation. 

These permanent dressings always need careful watching with refer- 
ence to their immediate effect upon the region they cover, especially 
during the first days succeeding that of their application. Any mani- 
festation of pain, or any appearance of swelling above or below, or any 
odor suggestive of suppuration should excite suspicion, and a thorough 
investigation should follow without delay. The removal of the dress- 
ing should be performed with great care, and especially so if time enough 
has elapsed since its application to allow of a probability of a com- 
mencement of the healing process or the existence of any points of con- 
solidation. With the original dressing properly applied in its entirety 
in the first instance, the entire extremity will have lost all chance of 
mobility, and the repairing process may be permitted to proceed without 
interference. There will be no necessity and there need be no haste for 
removal or change except under such special conditions as have just 
been mentioned, or when there is reason to judge that solidification has 
become perfect, or for the comfort of the animal, or for its readaptation 
in consequence of the atrophy of the limb from want of use. Owners 
of animals are often tempted to remove a splint or bandage prema- 
turely at the risk of producing a second fracture in consequence of the 
failure of the callus properly to consolidate. 

The method of applying the splints which we have described refers 
to the simple variety only. In a compound case the same rules must 
be observed, with the modification of leaving openings through the 



304 

thickness of the dressing, opposite the wound, in order to permit the 
escape of pus aud to secure access to the points requiring the applica- 
tion of treatment. 

FRACTURE OF DIFFERENT BONES. 

Of the cranial bones. — Fractures of this variety in large animals are 
comparatively rare, though the records are not destitute of cases. 
When they occur, it is as the result of external violeuce, the sufferers 
being usually runaways which have come in collision with a wall or a 
tree, or other obstruction} or it may occur in those which in pulling 
upon the halter have broken it with a jerk and been thrown backwards, 
as might occur in rearing too violently. Under these conditions we 
have witnessed fractures of the parietal, of the frontal, and of the 
sphenoid bones. These fractures may be of both the complete and the 
incomplete kind, which indeed is usually the case with those of the flat 
bones, and they are liable to be complicated with lacerations of the 
skin, in consequence of which they are easily brought under observa- 
tion. But when the fact is otherwise and the skin is intact, the diag- 
nosis becomes difficult. The incomplete variety may be unaccompanied 
by any special symptoms, but in the complete kind one of the bony 
plates may be so far detached as to press upon the cerebral substance 
with sufficient force to produce serious nervous complications. When 
the injury occurs at the base of the cranium hemorrhage may be looked 
for, with paralytic symptoms, and when these are present the usual ter- 
mination is death. It may still happen, however, that the symptoms 
of an apparently very severe concussion may disappear, with the result 
of an early and complete recovery, and the surgeon will therefore do 
well to avoid undue precipitation in venturing upon a prognosis. In 
fractures of the orbital or the zygomatic bones the danger is less press- 
ing than with injuries otherwise located about the head. The treatment 
of cranial fractures is simple, though involving the best skill of the 
experienced surgeon. When incomplete, hardly any interference is 
needed; even plain bandaging may usually be dispensed with. In the 
complete variety the danger to be combated is compression of the 
brain, and attention to this indication must not be delayed. The means 
to be employed are the trephining of the skull over the seat of the frac- 
ture, and the elevation of the depressed bone or the removal of the 
portion which is causing the trouble. Fragments of bone in comminu- 
ted cases, bony exfoliations, collections of fluid, or even protruding 
portions of the brain substance must be carefully cleansed away, and a 
simple bandage so applied as to facilitate the application of subsequent 
dressings. 

Fractures of the bones of the face. — lu respect to their origin — usually 
traumatic — these injuries rank with the preceding, and are commonly of 
the incomplete variety. They may easily be overlooked and may even 
sometimes escape recognition until the reparative process has been well 



305 

established and the discovery of the wound becomes due to the promi- 
nence caused by the presence of the provisional callus which marks its 
cure. When the fracture is complete it will be marked by local de- 
formity, mobility of the fragments, and crepitation. Nasal hemor- 
rhage, roaring, frequent sneezing, loosening or loss of teeth, difficulty 
of mastication, and inflammation of the cavities of the sinuses are 
varying complications of these accidents. The object of the treatment 
should be the restoration of the depressed bones as nearly as possible 
to their normal position, and their retention in place by protecting 
splints, which should cover the entire facial region. And special pre- 
cautions should be observed to prevent the patient from disturbing the 
dressing by rubbing his head against surrounding objects, such as the 
stall, the manger, the rack, etc. Clots of blood in the nasal passages 
must be washed out, collections of pus must be removed from the 
sinuses, and if the teeth are loosened and likely to fall out, they should 
be removed. If roaring is threatened, tracheotomy is indicated. 

Fractures of the ^re-maxillary bone. — The'se are mentioned by conti- 
nental authors. They are usually encountered in connection with frac- 
tures of the nasal bone, and may take place either in the width or the 
length of the bone. 

The deformity of the upper lip, which is drawn sidewise in this lesion, 
renders it easy of diagnosis. The abnormal mobility and the crepita- 
tion, with the pain manifested by the patient when undergoing ex- 
amination, are concurrent symptoms. Looseness of the teeth, abun- 
dant salivation, and entire inability to grasp the food complete the 
symptomatology of these accidents. In the treatment, splints of gutta 
percha or leather are sometimes used, but they are of difficult applica- 
tion. Our own judgment and practice are in favor of the union of the 
bones by means of metallic sutures. 

The lower jaw. — A fracture here is not an injury of infrequent oc- 
currence. It involves the body of the bone, at its symphysis, or back 
of it, and includes one or both of its branches, either more or less for- 
ward, or at the posterior part, near the temporo maxillary articulation, 
at the coronoid process. 

Falls, blovvs, or other external violence, or powerful muscular con- 
tractions during the use of the speculum, may be mentioned among 
the causes of this lesion. The fracture of the neck and of the branches 
in front of the cheeks causes the lower jaw, the true dental arch, to 
drop, without the ability to raise it again to the upper, and the result 
is a peculiar and characteristic physiognomy. The prehension and 
mastication of food become impossible; there is an abundant escape of 
fetid and sometimes bloody saliva, especially if the gums have been 
wounded ; there is excessive mobility of the lower end of the jawbone; 
and there is crepitation, and frequently paralysis of the under lip. But 
although the aspect of an animal suffering with a complete and often 
compound and comminuted fracture of the submaxilla presents at times 
11035 20 



306 

a frightful spectacle, the prognosis of the case is comparatively sim- 
ple, and recovery usually only a question of time. The severity of 
the lesion corresponds in degree with that of the violence to which it 
is due, the degree of simplicity or the amount of complication, and 
with the situation of the wound. It is simple when at the symphysis, 
but becomes more serious when it affects one of the branches, to be 
again aggravated when both are involved. Fracture of the coronoid 
process becomes important principally as an evidence of the existence 
of a morbid diathesis, such as osteoporosis, or the like. 

The particular seat of the injury, with its special features, will of 
course determine the treatment. For a simple fracture without dis- 
placement, provided there is no laceration of the periosteum, an ordi- 
nary supporting bandage will usually be sufficient. But when there is 
displacement the reduction of the fracture must first be accomplished, 
and for this special splints are necessary. In a fracture of the sym- 
physis or of the branches the adjustment of the fragments by securing 
them with metallic sutures istbe first step necessary, to be followed by 
the application of supports, consisting of splints of leather or sheets 
of metal, the entire front of the head being then covered with bandages 
prepared with adhesive mixtures. During the entire course of treat- 
ment a special method of feeding becomes necessary. The inability of 
the patient to appreciate the situation of course necessitates a resort 
to an artificial mode of introducing the necessary food into his otomach, 
and it is accomplished by forcing between the commissures of the lips, 
in a liquid form, by means of a syringe, the milk or nutritive gruels 
selected for his sustenance, until the consolidation is sufficiently ad- 
vanced to permit the ingestion of food of a more solid consistency. The 
callus will usually be sufficiently hardened in two or three weeks to al- 
low of a change of diet to mashes of cut hay and scalded grain, until 
the removal of the dressing restores him to his old habit of mastication- 

Fractures of vertebrce. — These are not very common, but when they do 
occur the bones most frequently injured are those of the back and loins. 
The ordinary causes of fracture are responsible here as elsewhere, such 
as heavy blows on the spinal column, severe falls while conveying heavy 
loads, and especially violent efforts in resisting the process of casting. 
Although occurring more or less frequently under the latter circum- 
stances, the accident is not always attributable to carelessness or error 
in the management. It may, of course, sometimes result from such a 
cause as a badly prepared bed, or the accidental presence of a hard 
body concealed in the straw, or to a heavy fall when the movements of 
the patient have not been sufficiently controlled by an effective appa- 
ratus and its skillful adaptation, but it is quite as likely to be caused by 
the violent resistance and the consequent powerful muscular contrac- 
tion by the frightened patient. The simple fact of the overarching of 
the vertebral column, with excessive pressure against it from the intes- 
tinal mass, owing to the spasmodic action of the abdominal muscles, 



307 

may account for it, and so also may the struggles of the animal to 
escape from the restraint of the hobbles while frantic under the pain of 
an operation without anaesthesia. In these cases the fracture usually 
occurs in the body or the annular part, or both, of the posterior dorsal 
or the anterior lumbar vertebra. When the transverse processes of 
the last-named bones are injured, it is probably in consequence of the 
heavy concussion incident to striking the ground when cast. The diag- 
nosis of a fracture of the body of a vertebra is not always easy, espe- 
cially when quite recent, and more especially when there is no accom- 
panying displacement. There are certain peculiar signs accompanying 
the occurrence of the accident while an operation is in progress which 
should at once excite the suspicion of the surgeon. In the midst of a 
violent struggle the patient becomes suddenly quiet ; the movement of 
a sharp instrument which at first excited his resistance fails to give 
rise to any further evidence of sensation ; perhaps a general trembling, 
lasting for a few minutes, will follow, succeeded by a cold, profuse per- 
spiration, particularly between the hind legs, and frequently there will 
be micturition and defecation. Careful examination of the vertebral 
column may then detect a slight depression or irregularity in the direc- 
tion of the spine, and there may be a diminution or loss of sensation in 
the posterior part of the trunk while the anterior portion continues to 
be as sensitive as before. In making an attempt to get upon his feet, 
however, upon the removal of the hobbles, only the fore part of the 
body will respond to the effort, a degree of paraplegia being present, 
and while the head, neck, and fore part of the body will be raised, the 
hind quarters and hind legs will remain inert. The animal may per- 
haps succeed in rising and probably may be removed to his stall, but 
the displacement of the bone will follow, converting the fracture into 
one of the complete kind, either through the exertion of walking or by 
a renewed attempt to rise after another fall, before reaching his stall. 
By this time the paralysis is complete, and the extension of the menin- 
gitis which has become established is a consummation soon reached. 

To say that the prognosis of fracture of the body of the vertebrae is 
always serious is to speak very mildly. It were better perhaps to say 
that occasionally a case may recover. Fractures of the transverse pro- 
cesses are less serious. 

Instead of stating the indication in this class of cases, as if assuming 
them to be medicable, the question naturally becomes rather a query : 
"Can any treatment be recommended in a fracture of the body of a 
vertebra?" The only indication in such a case, in our opinion, is to 
reach the true diagnosis in the shortest possible time and to act ac- 
cordingly. If there is displacement, and the existence of serious le- 
sions may be inferred from the nervous symptoms, the destruction of 
the suffering animal appears to suggest itself as the one conclusion in 
which considerations of policy, humanity, and science at once unite. 

If, however, it is fairly evident that no displacement exists ; that 



308 

pressure upon the spinal cord is not yet present; that the animal with a 
little assistance is able to rise upon his feet and to walk a short dis- 
tance, it may be well to experiment upon the case to the extent of 
placing the patient in the most favorable circumstances for recovery, 
and allow nature to operate without further interference. This may be 
accomplished by securing immobility of the whole body as much as 
possible, and especially of the suspected region, by placing the patient 
in slings, in a stall sufficiently narrow to preclude lateral motion, and 
covering the loins with a thick coat of agglutinative mixture, watch 
and wait for developments. 

Fracture of the ribs. — The different regions of the chest are not equally 
exposed to the violence to which fractures of the ribs are due, and 
they are therefore either more common or more easily discovered, during 
life, at some points than at others. The more exposed regions are the 
middle and the posterior, while the front is largely covered and de- 
fended by the shoulder. A single rib may be the seat of fracture, or a 
number may be involved, and there may be injuries on both sides of 
the chest at the same time. It may take place lengthwise, in any part 
of the bone, though the middle, being the most exposed, is the most 
frequently hurt. Incomplete fractures are usually lengthwise, involv- 
ing a portion only of the thickness or one or other of the surfaces. 
The complete kind may be either transverse or oblique, and are most 
commonly denticulated. The fracture may be comminuted, and a single 
bone may show one of the complete and one of the incomplete kind, at 
different points. The extent of surface presented by the thoracic re- 
gion, with its complete exposure at all points, explains the liability of 
the ribs to suffer from all the forms of external violence. 

In many instances fractures of these bones continue undiscovered, 
especially the incomplete variety, without displacement, though the 
evidences of local pain, a certain amount of swelling and a degree of 
disturbance of the respiration, if noticed during the examination of a 
patient, may suggest a suspicion of their existence. Abnormal mobility 
and crepitation are difficult of detection, even when present, and they 
are not always present. When there is displacement the deformity 
which it occasions will betray the fact, and when such an injury exists 
the surgeon will of course become vigilant in view of possible and 
probable complications of thoracic trouble, and prepare himself for an 
encounter with a case of traumatic pleuritis or pneumonia. Fatal in- 
juries of the heart are recorded. Subcutaneous emphysema is a com- 
mon accompaniment of broken ribs, aud we recall the death from this 
cause of a patient of our own, which had suffered a fracture of two 
ribs in the region of the withers under the cartilages of the shoulder, 
and of which the diagnosis was only made after the fatal ending of 
the case. 

These hurts are not often of a very serious character, though the 
union is never as solid aud complete as in other fractures, the callus 



309 

being usually imperfect and of a fibrous character, with an amphiar- 
throsis formation. Still, complications occur which may impart grav- 
ity to the prognosis. 

Fractures with but a slight or no displacement need no reduction. 
All that is necessary is a simple application of a blistering nature as a 
preventive of inflammation or for its subjugation when present, and in 
order to excite an exudation which will tend to aid in the support and 
immobilization of the parts. At times, however, a better effect is ob- 
tained by the application of a bandage placed firmly around the chest, 
•although, while this limits the motion of the ribs, it is apt to render 
the respiration more labored. 

If there is displacement with much accompanying pain and evident 
irritation of the lungs, the fracture must be reduced without delay. 
'The means of effecting this vary according to whether the displacement 
is outwards or inwards. In the first case the bone may be straightened 
toy pressure from without, while in the second the end of the bone must 
t>e raised by a lever, for the introduction of which a small incision 
'through the skin and intercostal spaces will be necessary. When coap- 
tation has been affected it must be retained by the external application 
of adhesive mixture, with splints and bandages around the chest. 

Fractures of the bones of the pelvis will be considered under their sep- 
arate denominations, as those of the sacrum and the os ijinominata, or 
hip, which includes the subdivisions of the ilium, the pubes, and the 
ischium. 

The sacrum. — Fractures of this bone are rarely met with among sol- 
ipeds. Among cattle, however, it is of common occurrence, being at- 
tributed not only to the usual varieties of violence, as blows and other 
external hurts, but to the act of coition, and to violent efforts in partu- 
rition. It is generally of the transverse kind, and may be recognized 
by the deformity which it occasions. This is due to the dropping of the 
bone, with a change in its direction and a lower attachment of the tail, 
which also becomes more or less paralyzed. The natural and spontane- 
ous relief which usually interposes in these cases has doubtless been 
observed by the extensive cattle breeders of the West, and their prac- 
tice and example fully establishes the inutility of interference. Still, 
cases may occur in which reduction may be indicated, and it then 
becomes a matter of no difficulty. It is effected by the introduction of 
a round, smooth piece of wood into the rectum as far as the fragment of 
bone, and using it as a lever, resting it upon another as a fulcrum placed 
under it outside. The bone having been thus returned may be kept in 
place by the ordinary external means in use. 

The os innominata. — Fractures of the ilium may be observed either at 
the angle of the hip or at the neck of the bone ; those of the pubes may 
take place at the symphysis, or in the body of the bone; those of the 
ischium on the floor of the bone, or at its posterior external angle. Or, 
again, the fracture may involve all three of these constituent parts of 



310 

the hip bone by having its situation in the articular cavity — the acetabu- 
lum by which it joins the femur or thigh bone." 

Some of these fractures are easily recognized, while others are diffi- 
cult to identify. The ordinary deformity Avhich characterizes a fracture 
of the external angle of the ilium, its dropping and the diminution of 
that side of the hip in width, unite in indicating the existence of the 
condition expressed by the term " hipped." But an incomplete fracture, 
or one that is complete without displacement, or even oue with dis- 
placement, often demands the closest scrutiny for its discovery. The 
lameness may be well marked, and an animal may show but little ap- 
pearance of it while walking, but upon being urged into a trot will 
manifest it more and more, until presently he will cease to use the 
crippled limb altogether, and perform his traveling entirely on three legs. 
The acute character of the lameness will vary iu degree as the seat 
of the lesion approximates the acetabulum. In walking, the motion at 
the hip is very limited, and the leg is dragged, while at rest it is re- 
lieved from bearing its share in sustaining the body. An intelligent 
opinion and correct conclusion will depend largely upon a knowledge 
of the history of the case, and while in some instances that will be but 
a report of the common etiology of fractures, such as blows, hurts, and 
other external violence, the simple fact of a fall may furnish in a single 
word a satisfactory solution of the whole matter. 

With the exception of the deformity of the ilium in a fracture of it3 
external angle, and unless there have been a serious laceration of tis- 
sues and infiltration of blood, or excessive displacement, there are no 
very definite external symptoms in a case of a fracture of the hip bone. 
There is one, however, which, in a majority of cases, will not fail — it is 
crepitation. This evidence is attainable by both external and internal 
examination — by manipulation of the gluteal surface and by rectal 
taxis. Very often a lateral motion, or balancing of the hinder parts by 
pressing the body from one side to the other, will be sufficient to ren- 
der the crepitation more distinct — a slight sensation of grating, which 
may be perceived even through the thick coating of muscle which 
covers the bone — and the sensation may not only be felt, but to the ear 
of the expert may eveu become audible. This external manifestation 
is, however, not always sufficient in itself, and should always be asso- 
ciated with the rectal taxis for corroboration. It is true that this may 
fail to add to the evidence of fracture, but till then the simple testimony 
afforded by the detection of crepitation from the surface, though a 
strong confirmatory point, is scarcely sufficiently absolute to establish 
more than a reasonable probability or strong suspiciou in the case. 

In addition to the fact that the rectal examination brings the explor- 
ing hand of the surgeon into near proximity to the desired point of 
search, and to an accurate knowledge of the situation of parts, both pro 
and con as respects his own views, there is another advantage attend- 
ant upon it which is well entitled to appreciation. This is the facility 



311 

with which he can avail himself of the cooperation of an assistant, who 
can aid him by manipulating the implicated limb and placing it in va- 
rious positions, so far as the patient will permit, while the surgeon 
himself is making explorations and studying the effect from within. 
By this method he can hardly fail to ascertain the character of the 
fracture and the condition of the bony ends. By the rectal taxis, as if 
with eyes in the finger ends, he will "see" what is the extent of the 
fracture of the ilium or of the neck of that bone; to what part of the 
central portion of the bone (the acetabulum) it reaches; whether this 
is free from disease or not, and in what location on the floor of the 
pelvis the lesion is situated. We have frequently, by this method, been 
able to detect a fracture at the symphysis, which from its history and 
symptoms and an external examination, could only have been guessed at. 

Yet, with all its advantages, the rectal examination is not always 
necessary, as, for example, when the fracture is at the posterior and 
external angle of the ischium, when by friction of the bony ends the 
surgeon may discern the crepitation without it. 

Every variety of complication, including muscular lacerations with 
the formation of deep abscesses and injuries to the organs of the pelvic 
cavity, the bladder, the rectum, and the uterus, may be associated 
with fractures of the hip bone. 

The prognosis of these lesions will necessarily vary considerably. A 
fracture of the most superficial part of the bone of the ilium or of the 
ischium, especially where there is little displacement, will unite rapidly, 
leaving a comparatively sound animal often quite free from subsequent 
lameness. But if there is much displacement, only a ligamentous union 
will take place, with much deformity and more or less irregularity in 
the gait. Other fractures may be folio wed by complete disability of 
the patient, as, for example, when the cotyloid cavity is involved, or 
when the reparatory process has left bony deposits in the pelvic cavity 
at the seat of the union, which may, with the female, interfere with the 
steps of parturition, or induce some local paralysis by pressure upon 
the nerves which govern the muscles of the hind legs. This is a con- 
dition not infrequently observed when the callus has been formed on 
the floor of the pelvis near the obturator foramen, pressing upon the 
course or involving the obturator nerve. 

The treatment of all fractures of the hip bone should, in our estima- 
tion, be of the simplest kind. Rendered comparatively immovable by 
the thickness of the muscles by which the region is enveloped, one es- 
sential indication suggests itself, and that is, to place the animal in a 
position which, as far as possible, will be fixed and permanent. For 
the accomplishment of this purpose the best measure, as we consider it, 
is to place him in a stall of just sufficient width to admit him, and to 
apply a set of slings snugly, but comfortably. This will fulfill the essen- 
tial conditions of recovery, rest, and immobility. Blistering applica- 
tions would be injurious, though the adhesive mixture might prove in 
some degree beneficial. 



312 

The minimum period allowable for solid union in a fractured hip is, 
in our judgment, two months, and we have known cases in which that 
was too short a time. 

As we have before said, there may be cases in which the treatment 
for fracture at the floor of the pelvis has been followed by symptoms of 
partial paralysis, the animal, when lying down, being unable to regain 
his feet, but moving freely when placed in an upright position. This 
condition is due to the interference of the callus with the functions of 
the obturator nerve, which it presses upon or surrounds. We feel war- 
ranted by our experience in similar cases in cautioning owners of horses 
in this condition to exercise due patience, and to avoid a premature 
sentence of condemnation against their invalid servants; they are not 
all irrecoverably paralytic. With alternations of moderate exercise, rest 
in the slings, and the effect of time while the natural process of absorp- 
tion is taking effect upon the callus, with other elements of change that 
may be so operating, the horse may in due time become able to once 
more earn his subsistence and serve his master. 

Fracture of the scapula. — This bone is seldom fractured, its compara- 
tive exemption being due to its free mobility and the protection it re- 
ceives from the superimposed soft tissues. Only direct and powerful 
causes are sufficient to effect the injury, and when it occurs the large 
rather than the smaller animals are the subjects. The causes are heavy 
blows or kicks, and violent collisions with unyielding objects. Those 
which are occasioned by falls are generally at the neck of the bone, and 
of the transverse and comminuted varieties. 

The diagnosis is not always easy. The symptoms are inability to rest 
the leg on the ground and to carry weights, and they are present in 
various degrees from slight to severe, The leg rests upon the toe and 
seems shortened, and locomotion is performed by jumps. Moving the 
leg while examining it and raising the foot for inspection seem to pro- 
duce much pain and cause the animal to rear. Crepitation is readily 
felt with the hand upon the shoulder when the leg is moved. If the 
fracture occurs in the upper part of the bone, overlapping of the frag- 
ments and displacement will be considerable. 

The fracture of this bone is usually classed among the more serious 
accidents, though cases may occur which are followed by recovery with- 
out very serious ultimate results, especially when the seat of the injury 
is at some of the upper angles of the bone, or about the acromion crest. 
But if the neck and the joint are the parts involved, complications are 
apt to be present which are likely to disable the animal for life. 

If there is no displacement a simple adhesive dressing, to strengthen 
and immobilize the parts, will be sufficient. A coat of black pitch dis- 
solved with wax and Venice turpentine, and kept in place over the 
region with oakum or linen bands, will be all the treatment required, 
especially if the animal is kept quiet in the slings. 

Displacement cannot be remedied, and reduction is next to impos- 



313 

sible. Sometimes an iron plate is applied over the parts and retained 
by bandages, as in the dressing of Bourgelat ; and this may be advan- 
tageously replaced by a pad of thick leather. In smaller animals the 
parts are retained by figure-8 bandages, embracing both the normal 
and the diseased shoulders, crossing each other in the axilla and cov- 
ered with a coating of adhesive mixture. 

Fractures of the humerus. — These are more common in small than in 
large animals, and are always the result of external traumatism. They 
are generally very oblique, are often comminuted, and though more 
usually involving the shaft of the bone will in some cases extend to 
the upper end and into the articular head. There is ordinarily con- 
siderable displacement in consequence of the overlapping of the broken 
ends of the bone, and this, of course, causes more or less shortening of 
the limb. There will also be swelling, with difficulty of locomotion, 
and crepitation will be easy of detection. This fracture is always a 
serious damage to the patient, leaving him with a permanently short- 
ened limb and a remediless, lifelong lameness. 

If treatment is determined on it will consist in the reduction of the 
fracture by means of extension and counter extension, and in order to 
accomplish this the animal must be thrown. If successful in the reduc- 
tion, then follows the application and adjustment of the apparatus of 
retention, which must needs be of the most perfect and efficient kind. 
And finally, this, however skillfully contrived and carefully adapted, 
will often fail to effect any good purpose whatever. 

Fracture of the forearm. — A fracture in this region may also involve 
the radius or the cubitus, the first being broken at times in its upper 
portion above the radio-cubital arch at the olecranon. If the fracture 
occurs at any part of the forearm from the radio-cubital arch down to 
the knee, it may involve either the radius alone or the radius and the 
cubitus, which are there intimately united. 

Besides having the same etiology with most of the fractures, those of 
the forearm are, nevertheless, more commonly due to kicks from other 
animals, especially when crowded together in large numbers in insuffi- 
cient space. It is a matter of observation that, under these circum- 
stances, fractures of the incomplete kind are those which occur on the 
inside of the leg, the bone being in that region almost entirely subcu- 
taneous, while those of the complete class are either oblique or trans- 
verse. The least common are the longitudinal, in the long axis of the 
bone. 

This variety of fracture is easily recognized by the appearance of the 
leg and the different changes it undergoes. There is inability to use 
the limb; impossibility of locomotion; mobility below the injury; the 
ready detection of crepitation — in a word, the assemblage of all the 
signs and symptoms which have been already considered as associated 
with the history of broken bones. 

The fracture of the cubitus alone, principally above the radio-cubital 



314 

arch, may be ascertained by the aggravated lameness, the excessive 
soreness on pressure, and perhaps a certain increase of motion, with a 
very slight crepitation if tested for in the usual way. Displacement 
is not likely to take place except when it is well up towards the ole- 
cranon or its tuberosity, the upper segment of the bone being in that 
case likely to be drawn upwards. For a simple fracture of this region 
there exists a fair chance of recovery, but in a case of the compound 
and comminuted class there is less ground for a favorable prognosis, 
especially if the elbow joint has suffered injury. A fracture of the 
cubitus alone is not of serious importance, except when the same con- 
ditions prevail. A fracture of the olecranon is less amenable to treat- 
ment, and promises little better than a ligamentous union. 

Considering all the various conditions involving the nature and ex- 
tent of these lesions, the position and direction of the bones of the fore- 
arm are such as to render the chances for recovery from fracture as 
among the best. The reduction, by extension and counter extension ; 
the maintenance of the coaptation of the segments; the adaptation 
of the dressing by splints, oakum, and agglutinative mixtures; in 
a word, all the details of treatment may be here fulfilled with a 
degree of facility and precision not attainable in any other part of 
the organism. An important if not an essential point, however, 
must be emphasized in regard to the splints. Whether these are of 
metal, wood, or other material, they should reach from the elbow joint 
to the ground, and should be placed on the posterior face and on both 
sides of the leg. This is then to be so confined in a properly constructed 
box as to preclude all possibility of motion, while yet it must sustain a 
certain portion of the weight of the body. The iron splint (represented 
in Plate XXVII) recommended by Bourgelet is designed for fractures 
of the forearm, of the knee, and of the cannon bone, and will prove to 
be an appliance of great value. For small auimals our preference is for 
an external covering of gutta perch a, embracing the entire leg. A 
sheet of this substance of suitable thickness, according to the size of the 
animal, softened in lukewarm water, is, when sufficiently pliable, molded 
on the outside of the leg, and when suddenly hardened by the applica- 
tion of cold water forms a complete casing sufficiently rigid to resist all 
motion. Patients treated in this manner have been able to use the 
limb freely, without pain, immediately after the application of the 
dressing. The removal of the splint is easily effected by cutting it 
away, either wholly or in sections, after softening it by immersing the 
leg in a warm bath. 

Fracture of the fcnee. — This accident, happily, is of rare occurrence, 
but when it takes place is of a severe character, being of the commi- 
nuted kind, and always accompanied by synovitis, with disease of the 
joint, requiring for treatment therefor, besides the indication of perfect 
immobility of the joint, that of open joints, synovitis, and arthritis. 

Fracture of the femur. — The protection which this bone receives from 



315 

the large mass of muscles in which it is enveloped does not suffice to 
invest it with immunity in regard to fractures. It contributes its share 
to the list of accidents of this description, sometimes in consequence of 
external violence and sometimes as the result of muscular contraction ; 
sometimes it takes place at the upper extremity of the bone ; sometimes 
at the lower; sometimes at the head, when the condyles become impli- 
cated; but it is principally found in the body or diaphysis. The frac- 
ture may be of any of the ordinary forms, simple or compound, complete 
or incomplete, transverse or oblique, etc. A case of the comminuted 
variety is recorded in which eighty-five fragments of bone were counted 
and removed. 

The thickness of the muscular covering sometimes renders the diag- 
nosis difficult by interfering with the manipulation, but the crepitation 
test is readily available even when the swelling is considerable and 
which is likely to be the case as the result of the interstitial hemorrhage 
which naturally follows the laceration of the blood vessels of the region 
involved. If the fracture is at the neck of the bone the muscles of that 
region (the gluteal) are firmly contracted and the leg seems to be short- 
ened in consequence. Locomotion is impossible. Crepitation may in 
some cases be discernedby rectal examination, with one hand resting 
over the coxo-femoral (hip) articulation. Fractures of the tuberosities 
of the upper end of the bone, the great trochanter, may be identified 
by the deformity, the swelling, the impossibility of rotation, and the 
dragging of the leg in walking. Fracture of the body is always accom- 
panied by displacement, and as a consequence a shortening of the leg, 
which is carried forward. The lameness is excessive, the foot being 
moved, both when raising it from the ground and when setting it down, 
very timidly and cautiously. The manipulations for the discovery of 
crepitation always cause much pain. Lesions of the lower end of the 
bone are more difficult to diagnosticate with certainty, though the 
manifestation of pain while making heavy pressure upon the condyles 
will be so marked that only crepitation will be needed to turn a sus- 
picion into a certainty. 

The question as to treatment in fractures of this description resolves 
itself into the query whether any treatment can be suggested that can 
avail anything practically as a curative measure, whether, upon the 
hypothesis of reduction as an accomplished fact, any permanent or effi- 
cient device as a means of retention is within the scope of human 
ingenuity. If the reduction were successfully performed would it be 
possible to keep the parts in place by any known means at our dis- 
posal 1 At the best the most favorable result that could be anticipated 
would be a reunion of the fragments, with a considerable shortening of 
the bone, and a helpless, limping, 'crippled animal to remind us that for 
human achievement there is a " thus far, and no farther." 

In small animals, however, attempts at treatment are justifiable, and we 
areconvinced that in many cases of difficulty in the application of splints 



316 

and bandages a patient may be placed in a condition of undisturbed 
quiet and left to the processes of nature for "treatment" as safely and 
with as good an assurance of a favorable result as if he had been sub- 
jected to the most heroic secundum artem doctoring known to science. 
As a case in point, we may mention the case of a pregnant bitch which 
suffered a fracture of the upper end of the femur by being run over by 
a light wagon. Her " treatment" consisted in being tied up in a large 
box and let alone. In due time she was delivered of a family of pup- 
pies, and in three weeks she was running in the streets, limping very 
slightly, and nothing the worse for her accident. 

Fracture of the patella. — This, fortunately, is a rare accident and can 
only result from direct violence, as a kick or other blow. The lameness 
which follows it is accompanied with enormous tumefaction of the joint 
and disease of the articulation. The prognosis is unavoidably adverse, 
destruction being the only termination of an incurable and very pain- 
ful injury. 

Fractures of the tibia are probably more frequently encountered 
than any others among the class of accidents we are considering. As 
with injuries of the forearm of a like character, they may be complete 
or incomplete ; the former when the bone is broken in the middle or at 
the extremities, and transverse, oblique, or longitudinal. The incom- 
plete kind are more common in this bone than in any other. 

Complete fractures are easy to recognize, either with or without dis- 
placement. The animal is very lame, and the leg is either dragged or 
held up clear from the ground by flexion at the stifle, while the lower 
part hangs down. Carrying weight or moving backwards is impossi- 
ble. There is excessive mobility below the fracture and well-marked 
crepitation. If there is much displacement, as in an oblique fracture, 
there will be considerable shortening of the leg. 

While incomplete fractures can not be recognized in the tibia with 
any greater degree of certainty than in any other bone, there are some 
facts associated with them by which a diagnosis may be justified. The 
hypothetical history of a case may serve as an illustration : 

An animal has received an injury by a blow or a kick on the inside of 
the bone, perhaps without showing any mark. Becoming very lame 
immediately afterwards, he is allowed a few days' rest. Being then 
taken out again, he seems to have recovered his soundness, but within 
a day or two he betrays a little soreness, and this increasing he be- 
comes very lame again, to be furloughed once more, with the result 
of a temporary improvement, and again a return to labor and again 
a relapse of the lameness; and this alternation seems to be the rule. 
The leg being now carefully examined, a local periostitis is readily dis- 
covered at the point of the injury, the part being warm, swollen, and 
painful. What further proof is necessary 1 ? Is it not evident that » 
fracture has occurred, first superficial — a mere split in the bony struc- 
ture which, fortunately, has been discovered before some extra exertion 



317 

or a casual misstep had developed it into one of the complete kind, 
possibly with complications ? What other inference can such a series 
of symptoms thus repeated establish ? 

The prognosis of fracture of the tibia must, as a rule, be unfavorable. 
The difficulty of obtaining a union without shortening and consequently 
without lameness, is proof of the futility of ordinary attempts at treat- 
ment. But though this may be true in respect to fractures of the com- 
plete kind, it is not necessarily so with the incomplete variety, and with 
this class the simple treatment of the slings is all that is necessary to 
secure consolidation. A few weeks of this confinement will be suffi- 
cient. 

With dogs and other small animals there are cases which may be 
successfully treated. If the necessary dressings can be successfully ap- 
plied and retained, a cure will follow. 

Fractures of the hock. — Injuries of the astragalus have been recorded 
which had a fatal termination. Fractures of the os calcis have also been 
observed, but never with a favorable prognosis, and attempts to induce 
recovery have, as might have been anticipated, proved futile. 

Fractures of the cannon bones. — Whether these occur in the fore or 
hind legs they appear either in the body or near their extremities. If 
in the body, as a rule the three metacarpal or metatarsal are also af- 
fected, and the fracture is generally transverse and oblique, and often 
compound, one of the segments protruding sharply through the skin. 
Having only the skin for a covering the diagnosis is easy. There is no 
displacement, but excessive mobility, crepitation, inability to sustain 
weight, and the leg is kept off the ground by the flexion of the upper 
joint. 

No region of the body affords better facilities for the application of 
treatment, and the prognosis is, on this account, usually favorable. 
We recall a case, however, which proved fatal, though under exceptional 
circumstances. The patient was a valuable stallion of highly nervous 
organization, with a compound fracture of one of the cannon bones, and 
his unconquerable resistance to treatment, excited by the intense pain 
of the wound, precluded all chance of recovery, and ultimately caused 
his death from nervous fever. 

The general form of treatment for these lesions will not differ from 
that which has been already indicated for other fractures. Reduction, 
sometimes necessitating the casting of the patient ; coaptation, com- 
paratively easy by reason of the subcutaneous situation of the bone ; 
retention, by means of splints and bandages — applied on both sides of 
the region, and reaching to the ground as in fractures of the forearm — 
these are always indicated. We have obtained excellent results by the 
use of a mold of thick gutta percha, composed of two sections and 
made to surround tbe entire lower part of the leg as in an inflexible 
case. 

Fracture of the first phalanx. — The hinder extremity is more liable 



318 

than the fore to this injury. It is usually the result of a violent effort, 
or of a sudden misstep or twisting of the leg, and may be transverse, 
or, as has usually been the case in our experience, longitudinal, extend- 
ing from the upper articular surface down to the center of the bone, and 
generally oblique and often comminuted. The symptoms are the swell- 
ing and tenderness of the region, possibly crepitation ; a certain abnor- 
mal mobility; an excessive degree of lameness, and in some instances 
a dropping back of the fetlock, with perhaps a straightened or upright 
condition of the pastern. 

The difficulty of reduction and coaptation in this accident, and the 
probability of bony deposits, as of ringbones, resulting in lameness, 
are circumstances which tend to discourage a favorable prognosis. 

The treatment is that which has been recommended for all fractures, 
as far as it can be applied. The iron splint which has been mentioned 
gives excellent results in many instances, but if the fracture is incom- 
plete and without displacement a form of treatment less energetic and 
severe should be attempted. One case is within our knowledge in 
which the owner of an injured horse lost his property by his refusal to 
subject the animal to treatment, the postmortem revealing only a simple 
fracture with very slight displacement. 

Fractures of the coronet. — Though these are generally of the com- 
minuted kind, there are often conditions associated with them which 
justify the surgeon in attempting their treatment. Though crepitation 
is not always easy to detect, the excessive lameness, the soreness on 
pressure, the inability to carry weight, the difficulty experienced in 
raising the foot, all these suggest, as the solution of the question of 
diagnosis, the fracture of the coronet, with the accompanying realiza- 
tion of the fact that there is yet, by reason of the situation of the mem- 
ber, immobilized as it is by its structure and its surroundings, room 
left for a not unfavorable prognosis. Only a slight manipulation will 
be needed in the treatment of this lesion. To render the immobility of 
the region more fixed, to support the bones in their position by band- 
aging, and to establish forced immobility of the entire body with the 
slings is usually all that is required. Ringbone, being a common se- 
quela of the reparative process, must receive due attention subsequently. 
One of the severest complications likely to be encountered is anchylosis. 

Fractures of the os pedis. — Though these lesions are not of very rare 
occurrence their recognition is not easy, and there is more of specula- 
tion than of certainty pertaining to their diagnosis. The animal is 
very lame, and, as much as possible, spares the injured foot, sometimes 
resting it upon the toe alone and sometimes not at all. The foot is 
very tender, and the exploring pincers of the examining surgeon causes 
much pain. There is nothing to encourage a favorable prognosis, and 
a not unusual termination is an anchylosis with either the navicular 
bone or the coronet. 

No method of treatment needs to be suggested here, the hoof per- 



319 

forming the office of retention unaided. Local treatment by baths and 
fomentations will do the rest. It may be mouths before there is any 
mitigation of the lameness. 

Fracture oj the sesamoid bones. — This lesion has been considered by 
veterinarians, erroneously, we think, one of rare occurrence. We be- 
lieve it to be more frequent than has been supposed. Many observa. 
tious and careful dissections have convinced us that fractures of these 
little bones have often been mistaken for specific lesions of the numer- 
ous ligaments that are implanted upon their superior and inferior parts, 
and which have been described as a " giving way " or " breaking down " 
of these ligaments. In our post mortem examinations we have always 
noted the fact that when the attachments of the ligaments were torn 
from their bony connections minute fragments of bony structure were 
also separated, though we have failed to detect any diseased process of 
the fibrous tissue composing the ligamentous substance. 

From whatever cause this lesicj may arise, it can hardly be consid- 
ered as of a traumatic nature, no external violence having any apparent 
agency in producing it, and it is our belief that it is due to a peculiar 
degeneration or softening of the bones themselves, a theory which ac- 
quires plausibility from the consideration of the spongy consistency of. 
the sesamoids. The disease is a peculiar one, and the suddenness with 
which different feet are successively attacked, at short intervals and 
without any obvious cause, seems to prove the existence of some latent 
morbid cause which has been unsuspectedly incubating. It is not pe- 
culiar to any particular class of horses, nor to auy special season of the 
year, having fallen under our observation in each of the four seasons. 
The general fact is reported in the history of a majority of cases that it 
makes its appearance without premonition in animals which, after en- 
joying a considerable period of rest, are first exercised or put to work, 
though in point of fact it may manifest itself while the horse is still idle 
in his stable. A hypothetical case, in illustration, will explain our 
theory : 

An animal which has been at rest in his stable is taken out to work 
and it will be presently noticed that there is somethiug unusual in his 
movement. His gait is changed, and he travels with short, mincing 
steps, without any of his accustomed ease and freedom. This may con- 
tinue until his return to the stable, aud then, after being placed in his 
stall, he will be noticed shifting his weight from side to side and from 
one leg to another, continuing the movement until rupture of the bony 
structure takes place. But it may happen that the lameness in one or 
more of the extremities, anterior or posterior, suddenly increases, and it 
becomes evident that the rupture has taken place in consequence of a 
misstep or a stumble while the horse is at work. Then, upon coming to 
a standstill, he will be found with one or more of his toes turned up — he 
is unable to place the affected foot flat on the ground. The fetlock has 
dropped and the leg rests upon this part, the skin of which may have 



320 

remained intact or may have been more or less extensively lacerated. 
It seldom happens that more than one toe at a time will turn up, yet 
still the lesion in one will be followed by its occurrence iu another. 
Commonly two feet of a biped, the anterior or posterior, are affected, 
and we recall one case in which the two fore and one of the hind legs 
were included at the same time. The accident, however, is quite as 
likely to happen while the horse is at rest in his stall, and he may be 
found in the morning standing on his fetlocks. One of the earliest of 
the cases occurring iu our own experience had been under our care for 
several weeks for suspected disease of the fetlocks, the nature of which 
had not been made out, when, apparently improved by the treatment 
which he had undergone, the patient was taken out of the stable to be 
walked a short distance into the country,but had little more than started 
when he was called to a halt by the fracture of the sesamoids of both 
fore legs. 

While there are no positive premonitory symptoms known of these 
fractures we believe that there are signs and symptoms which come 
but little short of being so, and the appearance of which will always 
iustify a strong suspicion of the truth of the case. These have been 
indicated when referring to the soreness in standing, the short u mine, 
iug" gait, and the tenderness betrayed when pressure is made over the 
sesamoids on the sides of the fetlock, with others less tangible and 
definable. 

These injuries can never be accounted less than serious, and in our 
judgment will never be other than fatal. If our theory of their pathol- 
ogy is the correct one, and the cause of the lesions is truly the soften- 
ing of the sesamoidal bony structure and independent of any changes 
in the ligamentous fibers, the possibility of a solid osseous union can 
hardly be considered admissible. 

Iu respect to the treatment to be recommended and instituted it can 
only be employed with any rational hope of benefit during the incuba- 
tion, and with the anticipatory purpose of prevention. It must be sug- 
gested by a suspicion of the verities of the case, and applied before any 
rupture has taken place. To prevent this and to antagonize the causes 
which might precipitate the final catastrophe — the elevation of the 
toes — resort must be had to the slings and to the application of firm 
bandages or splints, perhaps of plaster of Paris, with a high shoe, as 
about the only indications which science and nature are able to offer. 
When the fracture is an occurred event, and the toes, one or more, are 
turned up, any further resort to treatment will be futile. 

DISEASES OF JOINTS. 

Three classes of injury will be considered under this head. These 
are, affections of the synovial sac; those of the joint structures, or of 
the bones and their articular surfaces, and those forms of solution of 
continuity known as dislocations or luxations. 



321 

Diseases of the synovial sacs. — Two forms of affection here present 
themselves, on e being the result of an abnornal secretion which induces 
a dropsical condition of the sac without any acute inflammatory action, 
while the other is characterized by excessive inflammatory symptoms, 
with their modifications, constituting synovitis. 

Synovial dropsies. — We have already considered in a general way the 
presence of these peculiar oil bags in the joints, and in some regions of the 
legs where the passage of the tendons takes place, and have noticed the 
similarity of structure and function of both the articular and the tendi- 
nous bursae, as well as the etiology of their injuries and their patholog- 
ical history, and we now propose to treat of the affections of both. 

Windgalls. — This name is given to the dilated bursee found at the 
posterior part of the fetlock joint. They have their origin in a drop- 
sical condition of the bursse of the joint itself, and also of the tendon 
which slides behind it, and are therefore further known by the desig- 
nations of articular and tendinous. 

They appear in the form of soft and somewhat symmetrical tumors, of 
varying dimensions, and generally well defined in their circumference. 
They are more or less tense, according to the amount of secretion they 
contain, apparently becoming softer as the foot is raised and the fetlock 
flexed. Usually they are painless and only cause lameness under cer- 
tain conditions, as when they began to develop themselves under the 
stimulus of inflammatory action, or when large enough to interfere with 
the functions of the ten dons, or again when they have undergone cer- 
tain pathological changes, such as calcification, which is among their 
tendencies. 

Windgalls may be attributed to external causes, such as severe labor 
or strains resulting from heavy pulling, fast driving, or jumping, or 
they may be among the sequelae of internal disorders and appear as re- 
sultants of a pleuritic or pneumonic attack. 

An unnecessary amount of anxiety is sometimes experienced respect- 
ing these growths, with much questioning touching the expediency of 
their removal, all of which might be spared, for while they constitute a 
blemish their unsightliness will not hinder the usefulness of the animal, 
and in any case they rarely fail to show themselves easily amenable to 
treatment. 

When in their acute stage, and when the dropsical condition is not 
excessive, pressure by bandages, slight alcoholic frictions, sweating, the 
use of liniments, or perhaps a stiff blister of the ordinary kind will ac- 
complish all that will be desired. It will subdue the inflammation and 
abate the soreness, and perhaps if the animal is not too soon returned 
to labor and exposed to the same causes by which they were before in- 
duced, the excess of secretion will be absorbed and the walls of the sac 
strengthened, and the windgall will disappear. 

But if the inflammation has become chronic, and the enlargement has 
^een of considerable duration, the negative course will be the wiser one, 
11035 21 



322 

If any benefit results from treatment it will be of only a transient kind, 
the dilatation returning when the patient is again subjected to labor, 
and it will be a fortunate circumstance if inflammation has not super- 
vened. 

But notwithstanding the generally benignant nature of the tumor 
there are exceptional cases, usually when it is probably undergoing cer- 
tain pathological changes, which may result in lameness and disable 
the animal, in which case surgical treatment will be indicated, especially 
if repeated blisters have failed to improve the symptoms. Firing is 
then a preeminent suggestion, and many a useful life has received a 
new lease as the result of this operation timely performed. The opera- 
tion, which consists in emptying the sac by means of punctures through 
and through, made with a red-hot needle or wire, and the subsequent 
injection into the cavity of certain irritating and alterative compounds, 
designed to effect its closure by exciting adhesive inflammation, such 
as tincture of iodine, may be commended ; but they are all too active 
and energetic in their effects and require too much special attention and 
intelligent management to be trusted to any hands other than those of 
an expert veterinarian. 

Blood spavin and thoroughpins. — The complicated arrangement of the 
hock joint, and the powerful tendons which pass on the posterior part, 
are lubricated with the product of secretion from one tendinous synovial 
and several articular synovial sacs. One large articular sac contributes 
to the lubrication of the shank bone (the tibia) and the bones of the 
hock proper (the astragalus). The teudinous sac lies back of the artic- 
ulation itself and extends upwards and downwards in the groove of that 
joint through which the flexor tendons slide. The dilatation of this 
articular synovial sac is what is denominated blood spavin, the term 
thoroughpin being applied to the dilatation of the tendinous capsule. 

The blood spavin is situated in front and a little inward of the hock; 
the thoroughpin is found at the back and on the top of the hock. The 
former is round, smooth, well defined, presenting on its outer surface, 
running from below upwards, a vein which is more or less prominent as 
the bursa is more or less dilated, and it is from this conspicuous blood 
vessel that the tumor derives its name. The thoroughpin is also round 
and smooth, but not so regularly formed, on each side and a little in 
front of the tendons in that part of the hock known as the "hollows," 
immediately back of the posterior face of the tibia or shank bone. 

In their general characteristics these tumors are similar to windgalls, 
and one description of the origin, symptoms, pathological changes, and 
treatment will serve for all equally, except that it is possible for a blood 
spavin to cause lameness, and thus to involve a verdict of unsoundness 
in the patient, a circumstance which will of course justify its classifica-. 
fion by itself as a severer form of a single type of disease. 

We have already referred to the subject of treatment and the means 
gmpioyed— rest, of course— with liniments, blisters, etc. ? and what we 



323 

esteem as the most active and beneficial of any, early, deep, and icclh 
performed cauterization. There are, besides, commendatory reports of 
a form of treatment by the application of pads and peculiar bandages 
upon the hocks, and it is claimed that the removal of the tumors has 
been affected by their use. But our experience with this apparatus has 
not been accompanied by such favorable results as would justify our 
indorsement of the flattering representations which have sometimes 
appeared in its behalf. 

Open joints — Broken knees^— Synovitis — Arthritis. — The nearness of the 
relations which exist between these several affections and their apparent 
connection as perhaps successive developments of a similar if not an 
essentially identical origin, with the advantage to be gained by the 
avoidance of frequent repetition in the details of symptoms, treatment, 
etc., are our reasons for treating under a single head the ailmeuts we 
have grouped together in the present chapter. 

The great, comprehensive, common cause whose effect is the disa- 
bility,, sometimes permanent and sometimes only of transient duration, 
of chiefly the horse among our domestic animals, is external traumatism. 
Blows, bruises, hurts by nearly every known form of violence, falls, 
kicks, lacerations, punctures — we may add compulsory speed in racing 
and cruel overloading of draught animals — cover the entire ground of 
the diseases and injuries of the joints, now receiving our consideration. 

In one case, a working horse making a misstep stumbles, and falling 
on his knees receives a hurt, variously severe, from a mere abrasion of 
the skin to a laceration, a division of the tegument, a slough, mortifi- 
cation, and the escape of the synovial fluid with or without exposure of 
the bones and their articular cartilages. 

In another case an animal, from one cause or another, perhaps an im- 
patient temper, has formed the habit of striking or pawing his manger 
with his fore feet until inflammation of the knee-joint is induced, first as 
a little swelling, diffused, painless ; then as a periostitis of the bones of 
the knee : later as bony deposits, then lameness, and finally the impli- 
cation of the joint, and following all the various conditions of carpitis. 

In another case a horse has received a blow with a fork from a care- 
less hostler, on or near a joint, or has been kicked by a stable com- 
panion, with the result of a punctured wound, at first mild-looking, 
painless, apparently without inflammation, and not yet causing lame- 
ness, but which, in a few hours, or it may be not until a few days, be- 
comes excessively painful, grows worse; the entire joint swells, pres- 
ently discharges, and at last a case of suppurative synovitis is presented, 
with perhaps disease of the joint proper, and arthritis as a climax. The 
symptoms of articular injuries vary not only in the degrees of the hurt, 
but in the nature of the lesion. 

Or. the condition of broken knees, resulting as we have said, may have 
for its starting point a mere abrasion of the skin— a scratch apparently, 
Which disappears without a resulting scar, The injury may, however, 



324 

have been more severe, the blow heavier, the fall aggravated by occur- 
ring upon an irregular surface, or sharp or rough object, with tearing 
or cutting of the skin, and this laceration may remain. A more serious 
case than the first is now brought to our notice. 

Another time, immediately following the accident, or possibly as a 
sequel of the traumation, the tendinous sacs may be opened, with the 
escape of the synovia; or worse, the tendons which pass in front of the 
knee are torn, the inflammation has spread, the joint and leg are 
swollen, the animal is becoming very lame; synovitis has set in. With 
this the danger becomes very great, for soon suppuration will be estab- 
lished, the external coat of the articulation proper become ulcerated, if 
it is not already in that state, and we find ourselves in the presence of 
an open joint, with suppurative synovitis — that is, with the worst among 
the conditions of diseased processes, because of the liability of the sup- 
puration to become infiltrated into every part of the joint, macerating 
the ligaments and irritating the cartilages, soon to be succeeded by their 
ulceration, with the destruction of the articular surface, or the lesion 
of ulcerative arthritis, one of the gravest among all the disorders known 
to the animal economy. 

But ulcerative arthritis and suppurative synovitis may be developed 
in other connections than that with open joints ; the simplest and ap- 
parently most harmless punctures may prove to be cause sufficient. 
For example, a horse may be kicked, perhaps, on the inside of the 
hock ; there is a mark and a few drops of blood to indicate the spot ; 
he is put to work, apparently free from pain or lameness, and per- 
forms his task with his usual ease and facility. But on the following 
morning the hock is found to be a little swollen and there is some stiff- 
ness. A little later on he betrays a degree of uneasiness in the leg, and 
shrinks from resting his weight upon it, moving it up and down for 
relief. The swelling has increased and is increasing, the pain is severe, 
and, finally, there is an oozing at the spot where the kick impinged of 
an oily liquid mixed with whitish drops of suppuration. The mischief 
is done and a simple, harmless punctured wound has expanded into a 
case of ulcerative arthritis and suppurative synovitis. 

From ever so brief and succinct description of this traumatism of the 
articulations, the serious and important character of these lesions, irre- 
spective of which particular joint is affected, will be readily understood. 
Yet there will be modifications in the prognosis in different cases, in 
accordance with the peculiarities of structure in the joint specially 
involved, as for example, it is obvious that a better result may be ex- 
pected from treatment when but a single joint, with only its plaiu artic- 
ular surfaces is the place of injury, than in one which is composed of 
several bones, united in a complex formation, as in the knee or hock. 
As severe a lesion as suppurative synovitis always is, and as frequently 
fatal as it proves to be, still cases arise in which the inflammation, as- 
suming a modified character and at length subsiding, the lesion termi- 



325 

nates favorably and leaves the animal with a comparatively sound and 
useful joint. There are cases, however, which terminate in no more 
favorable a result than the union of the bones and occlusion of the 
joint, to form an anchylosis, which is scarcely a condition to justify a 
high degree of satisfaction, since it insures a permanent lameness with 
very little capacity for usefulness. 

Appreciating now the dangers associated with all wouuds of articu- 
lations, however simple and apparently slight, and how serious and 
troublesome are the complications which are likely to arise during their 
progress and treatment, we are prepared to understand and realize the 
necessity and the value of early and prompt attention upon their dis- 
covery and diagnosis. 

For simple bruises, like those which appear in the form of broken 
knees, or of carpitis, simple remedies, such as warm fomentations or 
cold water applications and compresses of astringent mixtures, suggest 
themselves at once. Injuries of a more complicated character, as lacer- 
ations of the skin or tearing of soft structures, will also be benefited by 
simple dressings with antiseptic mixtures, as those of the carbolic acid 
order. The escape of synovia shoul d suggest the prompt use of collodion 
dressings to check the flow and prevent the further escape of the fluid. 
But if the discharge is abundant and heavily suppurative, little can be 
done more than to put in practice the "expectant " method with warm 
fomentations, repeatedly applied, and soothing mucilaginous poultices. 
Improveme nt^ if any is possible, will be but slow to mauifest itself. The 
most difficult of all things to do, in view of varying interests and opin- 
ions—that is, in a practical sense — is to abstain from " doing" entirely, 
and yet we are firmly convinced that non-interfernce, in the cases we 
are considering, is the best and wisest policy. 

In cases which are carried to a successful result the discharge will by 
degrees diminish, the extreme pain will gradually subside and the con- 
valescent will begin timidly to rest his foot upon the ground, and pres- 
ently to bear weight upon it, and perhaps, after a long and tedious 
process of recuperation, he may be returned to his former and normal 
condition of usefulness. When the discharge has wholly ceased and the 
wounds are entirely healed, a blister covering the whole of the joint for 
the purpose of stimulating the absorption of the exudation will be of 
great service. But if, on the contrary, there is no amelioration of symp- 
toms and the progress of the disease resists every attempt to check it; 
if the discharge continues to flow, not only without abatement, but in 
an increased volume, and not alone by a single opening but by a number 
of fistulous tracts which have successively formed ; if it seems evident 
that this drainage is rapidly and painfully sapping the suffering animal's 
vitality, and a deficient vis vitce fails to cooperate with the means of 
cure, all rational hope of recovery may be finally abandoned. Any fur- 
ther waiting for chances, or time lost in experimenting, will be mere 
cruelty and there need be no hesitation concerning the next step. The 



326 

poor beast is under sentence of death, and every consideration of inter- 
est and of humanity demands an anticipation of nature's evident in- 
tent in the quick and easy execution of the sentence. 

One of the essentials of treatment, and probably an indispensable 
condition when recovery is in any wise attainable, is the suspension of 
the patient in slings. He should be contiuuedinthemas long as he can 
be made to submit quietly to their restraint. 

Luxations. — Strength and solidity are so combined in the formation of 
the joints of our large animals that dislocations or luxations are inju- 
ries which are but rarely encountered. They are met with but seldom 
in cattle and less so in horses, while dogs and smaller animals are more 
often the sufferers. 

The accident of a luxation or (its synonym) dislocation (displacement) 
is less often encountered in the animal races than in man. This is not 
because the former are less subject to occasional violence involving 
powerful muscular contractions, or are less often exposed to casualties 
similar to those which result in luxations in the human skeleton, but 
because it requires the cooperation of conditions, anatomical, physio- 
logical, and perhaps mechanical, present in one of the races and lacking 
in the other, but which can not in every case be clearly defined. Per- 
haps the greater relative length of the bony levers in the human for- 
mation may constitute a cause of the difference. 

Among the predisposing causes in animals, caries of articular sur- 
faces, articular abscesses, excessive dropsical conditions, degenerative 
softening of the ligaments, and any excessive laxity of the soft struc- 
tures, may be enumerated. 

The symptoms of fractures and of dislocations are not always so va- 
riant as to preclude the possibility of error in determining a case without 
a thorough examination, but the essential difference, as it must always 
exist, must always be discoverable. 

In a dislocation there is one very peculiar and characteristic feature 
in the impossibility of motion associated with an excessive liberty of 
movement — the impossibility of active or controlled motion, and a 
facility of passive movement (or movableuess) at either the affected 
joint or at another of the same leg near to it. In a dislocation of the 
scapulo-humeral (or shoulder) joint the animal possesses no power of 
motion over the limb — no muscular contraction can avail to cause it to 
perform its various functions — but in the hands of the surgeon it may 
be made to describe a series of movements which would be simply 
impossible with the joint in a state of integrity. Both fractures and 
luxations are marked by deformity, but while in a fracture with dis- 
placement there will usually be a shortening of the leg, a dislocation 
may be accompanied by either a shortening or a lengthening. Swelling 
of the parts is usually a well-defined feature of these injuries. 

With all this similarity in the symptomatology of luxations and 
fractures, there is one sign which either by its presence or its absence 



327 

will greatly assist in settling a oase of differential diagnosis, and this is 
the existence or lack of crepitation. It has no place or cause in a mere 
dislocation; it belongs to a fracture, if it is a complete one. If there is 
crepitation with a dislocation then it proves that there is a fracture 
also. 

The prognosis of a luxation is comparatively less serious than that of 
a fracture, though at times the indications of treatment may prove to 
be so difficult to apply that complications may arise of a very severe 
character. 

The treatment of luxations must of course be similar to that of frac- 
tures. Reduction, naturally, will be the first indication in both cases, 
and the retention of the replaced parts must follow. The reduction in- 
volves the same steps of extension and counter-extension, performed 
in the same manner, with the patient subdued by anesthetics. 

The difference between the reduction of a dislocation and that of a 
fracture consists in the fact that in the former the object is simply to 
restore the bones to their true normal position, with each articular sur- 
face in exact contact with its companion surface, the apparatus neces- 
sary afterwards to keep them in situ being similar to that which is em- 
ployed in fracture cases, and which will usually require to be retained 
for a period of from forty to fifty days, if not longer, before the ruptured 
retaining ligaments are sufficiently firm to be trusted to perform their 
office unassisted. A variety of manipulations are to be employed by 
the surgeon, consisting in pushing, pulling, pressing, rotating, and 
indeed whatever movement may be necessary, until the bones are forced 
into such relative positions that the muscular contraction, operating 
in just the right directions, pulls the opposite matched ends together 
in true coaptation, a head into a cavity, an articular eminence into a 
trochlea, as the case may be. The " setting" is accompanied by a pe- 
culiar snapping sound, audible and significant, as well as a visible re- 
turn of the surface to its normal symmetry. 

Special dislocations. — While all the articulations of the body are liable 
to this form of injury, there are three in the large animals which may 
claim a special consideration, viz : 

The shoulder joint. — We mention this displacement without intending 
to imply the practicability of any ordinary attempt at treatment, which 
is usually unsuccessful, the animal whose mishap it has been to become 
a victim to it being disabled for life. The superior head of the arm 
bone as it is received into the lower cavity of the shoulder blade is so 
situated as to be liable to be forced out of place in four directions. It 
may escape from its socket, according to the manner in which the vio- 
lence affects it, outwards, inwards, backwards, or forwards, and the 
deformity which results and the effects which follow will correspond- 
ingly differ. We have said that treatment is generally unsuccessful. 
It may be added that the difficulties which interpose in the way of re- 
duction are nearly insurmountable, and that the application of means 



328 

for the retention of the parts after reduction would be next to impos- 
sible. The prognosis is sufficiently grave from any point of view for 
the luckless animal with a dislocated shoulder. 

The hip joint. — This joint partakes very much of the characteristics 
of the humero-scapular articulation, but is more strongly built. The 
head of the thigh bone is more separated, or prominent and rounder in 
form, and the cup-like cavity or socket into which it fits is much deeper, 
forming together a deep, true ball-and-socket joint, which is, moreover, 
reenforced by two strong cords of funicular ligaments, which unite them 
together. It will be easily comprehended, from this hint of the anatomy 
of the region, that a luxation of the hip joint must be an accident of 
comparatively rare occurrence. And yet cases are recorded in which 
the head of the bone has been affirmed to slip out of its cavity and as- 
sume various positions, inwards, outwards, forwards, and backwards. 

The indications of treatment are those of all cases of dislocation. 
When the reduction is accomplished the surgeon will be apprised of 
the fact by the peculiar snapping sound usually heard on such occasions. 

Pseudo luxations of the patella. — This is not a true dislocation. " The 
stifle bone is so peculiarly articulated with the thigh bone that the 
means of union are of sufficient strength to resist the causes which 
usually give rise to luxations. Yet there is sometimes discovered a 
peculiar pathological state in the hind legs of animals, the effect of 
which is closely to simulate the manifestation of many of the general 
symptoms of dislocations. This peculiar pathological condition origin- 
ates in muscular cramps, the action of which is seen in a certain change 
in the coaptation of the articular surfaces of the stifle and thigh bone, 
resulting in the exhibition of a sudden and alarming series of symptoms 
which have suggested the phrase of " stifle out" as a descriptive term. 
The animal so affected stands quietly and firmly in his stall, or perhaps 
with one of his hind legs extended backwards, and resists every attempt 
to move him backwards, and if urged to move forwards he will either 
refuse or comply with a jump, with the toe of the disabled leg dragging 
on the ground and brought forward by a second effort. There is no 
flexion at the hock and no motion at the stifle, while the circular motion 
of the hip is quite free. The leg appears to be much longer than the 
other, owing to the straightened position of the thigh bone, which forms 
almost a straight line with the tibia from the hip joint down. The 
stifle joint is motionless, and the motions of all the joints below it are 
more or less interfered with. External examination of the muscles of 
the hip and thigh discovers a certain amount of rigidity, with perhaps 
some soreness, and the stifle bone may be seen projecting more or less 
on the outside and upper part of the joint. 

This state of things may continue for some length of time and until 
treatment is applied, or it may spontaneously and suddenly terminate, 
leaving everything in its normal condition, butperhaps to return again. 

Pseudo dislocation of the patella is likely to occur under many of 



329 

the conditions which cause actual dislocation, and yetit may often occur 
in animals which have not been exposed to the ordinary causes, but 
which have remained at rest in their stables. Sometimes these cases 
are referred to falls in a slippery stall, or perhaps slipping when en- 
deavoring to rise ; sometimes to weakness in convalescing patients ; 
sometimes to lack of tonicity of structure and general debility ; some- 
times to relaxation of tissues from want of exercise or use. 

The reduction of these displacements of the patella is not usually at- 
tended with difficulty. A sudden jerk or spasmodic action will often 
be all that is required to spring the patella into place, when the flexion 
of the leg at the hock ends the trouble for the time. But this is not 
always sufficient, and a true reduction may still be indicated. To effect 
this the leg must be drawn well forward by a rope attached to the lower 
end, and the patella, grasped with the hand, forcibly pushed forwards 
and inwards and made to slip over the outside border of the trochlea 
of the femur. The bone suddenly slips into position, the excessive rigor 
of the leg ceases with a spasmodic jerk, and the animal may walk or 
trot away without suspicion of lameness. But though this may end 
the trouble for the time, and the restoration seem to be perfect and per- 
manent, a repetition of the entire transaction may subsequently take 
place, and perhaps from the loss of some portion of tensile power which 
would naturally follow the original attack in the muscles involved, the 
lesion might become a habitual weakness. 

Warm fomentations and douches with cold water will often promote 
permanent recovery, and liberty in a box stall or in the field will in 
many cases insure constant relief. The use of a high-heeled shoe is 
recommended by Europeau veterinarians. The use of stimulating lini- 
ments, with frictions, charges or even severe blisters, may be resorted 
to in order to prevent the repetition of the difficulty by strengthening 
and toning up the parts. 

DISEASES OF MUSCLES AND TENDONS. 

Sprains. — This term expresses a more or less complete laceration or 
yielding of the fibers of the muscles, tendons, or the sheaths surround- 
ing and supporting them. The usual cause of a sprain is external vio- 
lence, such as a fall or a powerful exertion of strength, with following 
symptoms of soreness, heat, swelliug, and a suspension of function. 
Their termination varies from simple resolution to suppuration, and 
commonly plastic exudation difficult to remove. None of the muscles 
or tendons of the body are exempt from liability to this lesion, though 
naturally from their uses and the exposure of their situation the ex- 
tremities are more liable than other regions to become their seat. The 
nature of the prognosis will be determined by a consideration of the seat 
of the injury and the complications likely to arise. The treatment will 
resolve itself into the routine of local applications, including warm 
fomentations, stimulating liniments, counter irritation by blistering, 



330 

and in some cases even firing. Rest, in the stable or in a box stall, will 
be of advantage by promoting the absorption of whatever plastic exu- 
dation may have formed, or the absorption may be stimulated by the 
careful and persevering application of iodine in the form of ointments 
of various degrees of strength. 

There are many conditions in which not only the muscular and tendi- 
nous structures proper are affected by a sprain, but, by contiguity of 
parts, the periosteum of neighboring bones may become involved, with 
a complication of periostitis and its sequelae. 

Lameness of the shoulder. — The frequency of the occurrence of lame- 
ness in the shoulder from sprains entitled it to precedence of mention in 
our present category. For, though so well covered with its muscular 
envelope, it is often the seat of injuries which, from the complex struc- 
ture of the region, become difficult to diagnosticate with satisfactory 
precision and facility. The flat bone which forms the skeleton of that 
region is articulated in a comparatively loose manner with the bone of 
the arm, but the joint is, notwithstanding, rather solid, and is power- 
fully strengthened by tendons passing outside, inside, and in front of 
it. Still, shoulder lameness or sprain may exist, originating in lacera- 
tions of the mucles, the tendons or the ligaments of the joint, or per- 
haps in diseases of the bones themselves. li Slip of the shoulder " is a 
phrase frequently applied to such lesions. 

The identification of the particular structures involved in these 
lesions is of much importance, in view of its bearing upon the question 
of prognosis. For example, while a simple superficial injury of the 
spinatus muscles, or of the muscles by which the leg is attached to the 
trunk, may not be of serious import and may readily yield to treatment, 
or even recover spontaneously and without interference, the condition 
is quite changed when a case of tearing of the flexor brachii, or of its 
tendons as they pass in front of the articulation occurs, or, what is still 
more serious, if there is inflammation or ulceration in the groove over 
which this tendon slides, or upon the articular surfaces or their sur- 
roundings or periostitis at any point adjacent. 

The frequency of attacks of shoulder lameness is not difficult to ac- 
count for. The superficial and unprotected position of the part, and 
the numerous movements of which it is capable, and which in fact it 
performs, render it both subjectively and objectively preeminently lia- 
ble to accident or injury. It would be difficult, nor would it materially 
avail, to enumerate all the forms of violence by which the shoulder may 
be crippled. A fall, accompanied by powerful concussion ; a violent 
muscular contraction in starting a heavily loaded vehicle from a stand- 
still; a misstep following a quick muscular effort; ajump accompanied 
by miscalculated results in alighting; a slip on a smooth, icy road ; 
balling the feet with snow; colliding with another horse or other ob- 
ject — indeed, the list might be indefinitely extended, but it would be 
without profit or utility. Some of the symptoms of shoulder lameness 



331 . 

are peculiar to themselves, and yet the trouble is frequently mistaken 
for other affections — navicular disease more often than any other. The 
fact that in both affections there are instances when the external symp- 
toms are but imperfectly defined, and that one of them especially is 
very similar in both, is sufficient to mislead careless or inexperienced 
observers and to occasion the error which is sometimes committed of 
applying to one disease the name of the other, erring both ways in the 
interchange. The true designation of pathological lesions is very far, 
at times, from being of certain and easy accomplishment, and owing 
to the massive structure of the parts we are considering this is espe- 
cially true in the present connection. And still there are many cases 
in which there is really no reasonable excuse for an error in diagnosis 
by an average practitioner. 

Shoulder lameness will of course manifest itself by signs and appear- 
ances more or less distinct and pronounced, according to the nature of 
the degree and the extent of the originating cause. We summarize 
some of these signs and appearances : 

The lameness is not intermittent but continued, the disturbance of 
motion gauging the severity of the lesion and its extent. It is more 
marked when the bones are diseased than when the muscles alone are 
affected. When in motion the two upper bony levers, the shoulder 
blade and the bone of the upper arm, are reduced to nearly complete 
immobility and the walking is performed by the complete displacement 
of the entire mass, which is dragged forward without either flexion or 
extension. The action of the joint below, as a natural consequence, is 
limited in its flexion. In many instances there is a certain amount of 
swelling at the point of injury — at the joint, or more commonly in front 
of it, or on the surface of the spinatus muscle. Again, instead of swell- 
ing there will be muscular atrophy, though while this condition of loss 
of muscular power may interfere with perfect locomotion, it is not in 
itself usually a cause of shoulder lameness. " Swenied" shoulders are 
more often due to disease below the fetlock than to affections above the 
elbow. 

During rest the animal often carries his leg forward, somewhat anal- 
ogous to the "pointing" position of navicular disease, though in some 
cases the painful member drops at the elbow in a semi-flexed position. 
The backing is sometimes typical, the animal when performing it, in- 
stead of flexing his shoulder, dragging the whole leg without motion in 
the upper segment of the extremity. The peculiar manner in which 
the leg is carried forward in the act of walking or trotting is in some 
instances characteristic of injuries of the shoulder, the power of exten- 
sion being limited ; the whole leg in the act of locomotion is moved for- 
ward with a circumflex, swinging motion, which distinguishes this pecu- 
liar affection from others. 

With the utmost scrutiny and care the vagueness and uncertainty of 
the symptoms will contribute to perplex and discredit the diagnosis 



. 332 

and embarrass the surgeon, and sometimes the expedient is tried of 
aggravating the symptoms by way of intensifying their significance, 
and thus rendering them more intelligible. This has been sought by 
requiring the patient to travel on soft plowed ground and compelling 
him to turn on the affected leg as a pivot, with other motions calculated 
to betray the locality of the pain. 

It is our conviction that lameness of the shoulder will in many cases 
disappear with no other prescription than that of rest. Provided the 
lesions occasioning it are not too severe time is all that is required. But 
the negation of letting alone is seldom accepted as a means of doing 
good, in the place of the active and the positive forms of treatment. 
This is in accordance with a trait of human nature which is universal, 
and is unlimited in its applications. Hence there must be something 
done. In mild cases of shoulder lameness, then, the indications are 
water, either in the cold douche or by showering, or by warm fomenta- 
tions. Warm wet blankets are of great service; and in addition, or as 
alternative, anodyne liniments, camphor, belladonna, either in the form 
of tincture or the oils, are of benefit, and at a later period stimulating 
friction with suitable mixtures, sweating liniments, blistering com- 
pounds, etc., will find their place, and, finally, when necessity demands 
it, the firing iron and the seton. 

The duration of the treatment must be determined by its effects and 
the evidence that may be offered of the results following the action of 
the reparative process. But the great essential condition of cure, and 
the one without which the possibility of relapse will always remain as 
a menace, is, as we have often reiterated in analogous cases, rest, im- 
peratively rest, irrespective of any other prescriptions with which it 
may be associated. 

Sprain of the elbow muscles. — This injury, which fortunately is not 
very common, is mostly encountered in cities, among heavy draught 
horses or rapidly driven animals which are obliged to travel, often 
smooth shod, upon slippery, icy, or greasy pavements, where they are 
easily liable to lose their foothold. The region of the strain is the pos- 
terior part of the shoulder, and the muscles which are affected are those 
which occupy the space between the posterior border of the scapula 
and the posterior face of the arm. It is the muscles of the olecranon 
which give way. 

The symptoms are easily recognized, especially when the animal is 
in action. While at rest the attitude may be normal, or by close scru- 
tiny a peculiarity may perhaps be detected. The leg may seem to drop ; 
the elbow may appear to be lower than its fellow, with the knee and 
lower part of the leg flexed and the foot resting on the toe, with the 
heel raised. Such an attitude, however, may be occasionally assumed 
by an animal without having any special significance. But when it be- 
comes more pronounced on putting him in motion the fact acquires a 
symptomatic value, and this is the case in the present instance. A 



333 

rapid gait becomes quite impossible, and the walk as in some few other 

diseases becomes sufficiently characteristic to warrant a diagnosis even 
when observed from a distance. An entire dropping of the anterior 
part of the trunk becomes manifest, and no weight is carried on the 
disabled side, in consequence of the loss of action in the suspensory 
muscles. There are often heat, pain, and swelling in the muscular mass 
at the elbow, though at times a hollow or depression may be observed 
near the posterior border of the scapula, which is probably the seat of 
injury. 

These hurts are of various degrees of importance, varying from mere 
minor casualties of quick recovery to lesions which are of sufficient se- 
verity to render an animal useless and valueless for life. 

The prime elements of treatment, which should be strictly observed, 
are rest and quiet. Prescriptions of air kinds, however, of course, have 
their advocates. Among them are ether, chloroform, camphor, alco- 
holic frictions, warm fomentations, blisters, setons, etc. But, unless the 
conclusions of experience are to be ignored, our own judgment is de- 
cisive in favor of rest, judiciously applied; and our view of what con- 
stitutes a judicious application of rest has been more than once presented 
in these pages. There are degrees of this rest. One contemplates 
simple immobility in a narrow stall. Another means the enforced mo- 
bility of the slings and a narrow stall as well. Another a box stall, with 
ample latitude as to posture and space, and option to stand up or lie 
down. As wide as this range may appear to be, radical recovery has 
occurred under all of these modified forms of letting our patients alone. 

Hip lameness. — The etiology of injuries and diseases of the hip is one 
and the same with that of the shoulder. The same causes operate and 
the same results follow. The only essential change, with an important 
exception, which would be necessary in passing from one region to the 
other in a description of its anatomy, its physiology, and its pathology, 
would be a substitution of anatomical names in referring to certain 
bones, articulations, muscles, ligaments, and membranes concerned in 
the injuries and diseases described. It would be only a useless repeti- 
tion to cover again the ground over which we have so recently passed 
in recital of the manner in which certain forms of external violence 
(falls, blows, kicks, etc.) result in other certain forms of lesion (luxation, 
fracture, periostitis, ostitis, etc.), and to recapitulate the items of treat- 
ment and the names of the medicaments proper to use. The same rules 
of diagnosis and the same indications and prognosis are applicable 
equally to every portion of the organism, with only such modifications 
in applying dressings and apparatus as may be required by differences 
of conformation and other minor circumstances, which must suggest 
themselves to the judgment of every experienced observer when the oc- 
casion arrives for its exercise. 

There is an exception to be made, while considering the subject in 
connection with the region now under advisement, in respect to the for- 



334 

midable affection known as morbus coxarius, or hip-joint disease; and 
leaving the detail of other lesions to take their place under other heads, 
that relating to the shoulder, for instance, we turn to the hip joint and 
its ailments as the chief subject of our present consideration. 

In investigating for morbus coxarius, let the observer first examine 
the lame animal by scanning critically the outlines of the joint and the 
region adjacent for any difference of size or disturbance of symmetry 
in the parts, any prominence or rotundity, and on both sides. The 
lame side will probably be warmer, more developed and fuller, both to 
the touch and to the eye. Let him then grasp the lower part of the 
leg (as he would in examining a case of shoulder lameness), and en- 
deavor to produce excessive passive motion. This will probably cause 
pain when the leg is made to assume a given position. Let him push 
the thigh forcibly against the hip bone, and the contact will again prob- 
ably cause a manifestation of pain. If the horse is trotted, the limited 
action of the hip joint proper and the excessive dropping and rising of 
the hip of the opposite side will be easily recognized. The abductive 
or circumflex motion observed in shoulder lameness is also present in 
hip lameness, but under special conditions, and the test of the difficulty, 
either by traveling on soft ground or making the lame leg a pivot in 
turning the horse in a circle, may here also contribute to the diagnosis 
as in testing for lameness in the anterior extremity. 

The prognosis of hip lameness is at times quite serious, not only 
on account of the long duration of treatment required to effect good 
results, and because of the characters which may be assumed by the 
disease, but of the permanence of the disability resulting from it. Ex- 
ostosis and ulcerative arthritis are sequelae which often resist every 
form of treatment. 

As before intimated, this is little more than a repetition of our 
remarks upon the lameness of the shoulder, with slight modifications 
occasioned by the muscular structure of the hip, and we are limited to 
the same recommendations of treatment. The advantages of rest must 
be reaffirmed with local applications, of which, however, it may be said 
that they are more distinctly indicated and likely to be more effective 
in their results than in shoulder lameness, and may be more freely em- 
ployed, whether in the form of liniments, blisters (singly or repeated), 
firing, or setoning. 

Sprains of suspensory ligaments and of the flexor tendons or their sheath. — 
The fibrous structure situated behind the cannon bones, both in the fore 
and hind legs, is often the seat of lacerations or sprains resulting from 
violent efforts or sudden jerks. The injury is readily recognized by the 
changed aspect of the region and the accompanying local symptoms. 
The parts, which in health are well defined, with the outlines of the 
tendons aud ligaments well marked, become the seat of a swelling, 
more or less developed, from a small spot of the middle of the back of 
the t§»4on t*> a tumefaction reaching from the knee down, to and eyen 



335 

involving the fetlock itself. It is always characterized by heat, and it 
is variously sensitive, ranging from a mere tenderness to a degree of 
soreness which shrinks from the lightest touch. The degrees of the 
lameness vary, and it has a corresponding range with the soreness, 
sometimes showing only a slight halting and at others the extreme of 
lameness on three legs, with intermediate degrees. 

It has for its cause, like all the other forms, external traumatism by 
falls, blows, etc., and may be considered serious or trifling, according to 
the circumstances of each case as judged by its own history. It may be 
safely assumed on general principles that a leg which has received such 
injuries very seldom returns to a perfect condition of efficiency and 
soundness, and that as a fact a certain absolute amount of thickening 
and deformity will remain in permanency, even when the lameness has 
entirely disappeared. 

For this reason the injured member should receive the earliest atten- 
tion possible, not only when the inflammatory condition is present but 
when it is subsiding, and there is only the thickening of the ligaments, 
the tendons, or the sheath. Cold bathing, cold-water bandages, either 
simple or with astringent solutions, do well in some cases, while in 
others hot applications have the preference, with complete rest ; also, 
moderate exercise; frictions with alcohol; tincture of soap; spirits of 
camphor ; mild liniments ; strong sweating liniments ; blisters ; the 
cautery — these are the means by which the absorption of the exudate 
must be promoted and the work of restoration effected. The prepara- 
tions of iodine are often of benefit in mild cases, but there are others 
in which the thickening of the tendons refuses to yield and the changed 
tissues remain firmly organized, leaving them in the form of a thick 
mass resting on the back part of the cannon bone. As a consequence 
the deformity remains and a new condition presents itself in the artic- 
ular disposition, constituting the deformity known as the JcnucJcling fet- 
lock. 

By this is meant a deformity of the fetlock joint by which the natural 
angle is changed from that which pertains to the healthy articulation. 
The first pastern or suffraginis loses its oblique direction and assumes 
another which varies from the upright to the oblique, from before back- 
wards, and from above downwards ; in other words, forming an angle 
with its point in front. 

This condition, as we have seen, may be the result of chronic disease 
producing structural changes in the tendons, and it may also occur as 
the result of other affections or some peculiarity independent of this 
and situated below the fetlock, such as ringbones, sidebones, or trau- 
matic disease of the foot proper. Animals are sometimes predisposed 
to knuckling, such, for example, as are naturally straight in their pas- 
terns or animals which are compelled to labor when too youug. The 
hind legs are more predisposed than the fore to this deformity, in conse- 
quence of the greater amount of labor they are required to perform 
as the propelling levers of the body, 



336 

The symptoms of knuckling are easily recognized. The changes in 
the direction of the bones vary more or less with the degree of the lesion, 
sometimes assuming such a direction that it almost becomes a true dis- 
location of the pastern. 

The effect of knuckling upon the gait also varies according to the 
degree of the deformity. As the different degrees of the shortening of 
the leg affect the motion of the fetlock the lameness may be very slight 
or quite extreme. Another consequence of this shortening is such a 
change in the position of the foot that the heels cease to come in con- 
tact with the ground and assume a greater elevation, and the final result 
of this is soon witnessed in the development of a clubfoot. 

To whatever cause the knuckling may be ascribed it is always a severe 
infirmity, and there is but little room for hoping to overcome it unless 
it be during the very first stages of the trouble, and the hope dwindles to 
still smaller dimensions when it is secondary to other diseases below 
the fetlock. If it is caused by overworking the animal, the first indica- 
tion will of course be rest. The animal must be turned loose and left 
unemployed and careful attention given to the condition of his feet and 
to the manner of shoeing, while time is allowed for the tendons to be- 
come restored to their normal state and the irritation caused by excess- 
ive stretching has subsided. A shoe with a thick heel will contribute 
to this. But if no improvement can be obtained and the tendons though 
retracted have yet been relieved of much of their thickening, the case 
is not a desperate one and may yet be benefited by the operation of te- 
notomy, single or double — an operative expedient which must beconi- 
mitted to the experienced surgeon for its performance. 

Sprung Jcnees. — Though not positively the result of diseases of the ten- 
dons acting upon the knees, we venture to consider this deformity in 
connection with that which we have just described. It consists in such 
an alteration in the direction and articulation of the bones which form 
the various carpal joints that instead of forming a vertical line from 
the lower end of the forearm to the cannon bone they are so united that 
the knee is more or less bent forward, presenting a condition due to the 
retraction of two of the principal muscles by which the cannon bone is 
flexed. 

This flexion of tho knee may also be a congenital deformity and have 
continued from the foaling of the animal. Or, like clubfoot it may be 
the result of heavy labor which the animal has been compelled to per- 
form at too early an age. It may also be due to other diseases existing 
in parts below the knee joint. 

This change of direction largely influences the movement of the an- 
imal by detracting from its firmness and practically weakening the en- 
tire frame, even to the extent of rendering him insecure on his feet, and 
liable to fall. This condition of weakness is sometimes so pronounced 
that he is exposed to fall even when standing at rest and unmolested, 
the knees being unable eyen to bear the portion of the mere weight of 



337 

the frame which belongs to them. This results in another trouble, that 
of being unable to keep permanently upright. He is apt to fall on his 
knees, and by this act becomes presently a suiferer from the lesion 
known by the term of broken knees. 

Whatever may be the originating cause of this imperfection it de- 
tracts very largely from the usefulness and value of a horse, disqualify- 
ing him for ordinary labor and wholly unfitting him for service under 
the saddle without jeopardizing the safety of his rider. If, however, 
the trouble is known from the start, and is not the result of congenital 
deformity or weakness of the knee joint, or secondary to other diseases, 
rest, with fortifying frictions, may sometimes aid in strengthening the 
joints ; and the application of blisters on the posterior part of the knee, 
from a short distauce above to a point a little below the joint, may be 
followed by some satisfactory results. But with this trouble, as with 
knuckling fetlocks, the danger of relapse must not be ignored, but kept 
in mind as a contingency always liable to occur. 

Curb. — This lesion is the bulging backwards of the posterior part of 
the hock, where in the normal state there should be a straight line, 
extending from the upper end of the point of the hock down to the fet- 
lock. The cause may be a sprain of the tendon which passes on the 
posterior part of the hock, or of one of its sheaths, or of the strong 
ligament situated on the posterior border of the os calcis. This condi- 
tion, if not commonly the result of malformation, is often seen in hocks 
which present the peculiar condition of being curby. It often occurs, 
also, as the result of violent efforts, of heavy pulling, of high jumping 
or of slipping; in a word, it may result from any of the causes hereto- 
fore considered as instrumental in producing lacerations of muscular, 
tendinous, or ligamentous struture. 

A hock affected with curb will, at the outset, present a swelling more 
or less diffuse on its posterior portion, with varying degrees of heat and 
soreness, and these will be accompanied by lameness of a permanent 
character. At a later period, however, the swelling will become better 
defined, the deformity more characteristic, the prominent curved line 
readily detected, and the thickness of the infiltrated tissue easily de- 
termined by the fingers. At this time, also, there may be a condition 
of lameness, varying in degree: while at others, again, the irregularity 
of action at the hock will be so slight as to escape attention, the animal 
betraying no appearance of its existence. 

A curb constitutes, by a strict construction of the term, an "un- 
soundness," since the hock thus affected is less able to endure severe 
labor, and is more liable to give way with the slightest effort. And yet 
the prognosis of a curb can not be considered to be serious, since it 
generally yields to treatment, or at least the lameness it may occasion 
is generally easily relieved, though the loss of contour caused by the 
bulging will always constitute a blemish to the eye. 

On the first appearance of a curb, when it exhibits the signs of au 
U035 22 



338 

acute inflammation, the first indication is to subdue this by the use of 
warm fomentations or other topical applications. But when these have 
exhausted their effect and the swelling has assumed better defined 
boundaries, and the infiltration of the tendons or of the ligaments is 
all that remains of a morbid state, then every effort must be directed 
to the object of effecting its absorption and reducing its dimensions by 
pressure and other methods. The medicaments most to be trusted are 
blisters of cautharides and frictions with ointments of iodine, or, pref- 
erably, biniodide of mercury. Mercurial agents alone, by their thera- 
peutic properties, or by means of the artificial bandages which they 
furnish by their incrustations when their vesicatory effects are ex- 
hausted, will give good results in some instances by a single applica- 
tion, and often by repeated applications. The use of the firing iron 
must, however, be frequently resorted to, either to remove the lameness 
or to stimulate the exudation. We believe that its early application 
ought to be resorted to in preference to waiting until the exudation is 
firmly organized. Deep and fine needle firing will prove as beneficial 
in curb as in any other disease of a similar nature. 

Lacerated tendons. — This form of injury, whether of a simple or of a 
compound character, may become a lesion of a very serious nature, 
and will usually require long and careful treatment, which may yet 
prove unavailing in consequence either of the intrinsically fatal char- 
acter of the wound itself or the complications which have rendered it 
incurable. 

Like all similar injuries, these are the result of traumatic violence, 
such as contact with objects both blunt and sharp ; a curbstone in the 
city; in the country a tree stump or a fence, especially one of wire. 
It may easily occur to a runaway horse when he is " whipped " with 
fragments of harness or "flogged" by fragments of splintered shafts 
" thrashing" his legs, or by the contact of his legs with the wagon he 
has overturned and shattered with his heels while disengaging himself 
from its wreck. 

It is not always necessary that the skin should be involved in this 
form of injury. On the contrary thetegument is frequently left entirely 
intact, or exhibits only some slight and superficial abrasions. Yet, 
again, the skin may be cut through and the tendons nearly severed. 
A point a little above the fetlock is usually the seat of the injury. But 
irrespective of this, and whether the skin is or is not implicated, the 
symptoms very much resemble those of a fracture. There is excessive 
mobility, at least more than in a normal state, with more or less inabil- 
ity to carry weight; there may be swelling of the parts, and on passing 
the hauds carefully along the tendon to the point of division the stumps 
of the divided structure will be felt more or less separated, perhaps 
wholly divided. The position of the animal while at rest and standing 
is peculiar and characteristic. While the heels are well placed on the 
ground, the toe is correspondingly elevated, with a disposition to turn 



339 

up— a form of breaking down which we have described when speaking 
of the fracture of the sesamoids. Carrying weight is done only with 
considerable difficulty, but with comparatively little pain, and the ani- 
mal will unconsciously continue to move the leg as if in great suffering, 
notwithstanding the fact that his general condition may be very good 
and his appetite unimpaired. 

The effect upon the general orgauism of compound lacerated wounds 
of tendinous structures, orthose which are associated with injuriesof the 
skin, are different. The wound becomes, in a short time, the seat of a 
high degree of inflammation with abundant suppuration, filling it from 
the bottom ; and the tendon, whether as the result of the bruise or of 
the laceration, or of maceration in the accumulated pus, undergoing a 
process of softening, and necrosis and sloughing ensue. This compli- 
cates the case, and probably some form of tendinous synovitis follows, 
running into suppurative arthritis, to end, if close to a joint, with a 
fatal result. 

The prognosis of lacerated tendons should be very cautiously at- 
tempted. Under the most favorable circumstances a period of from six 
weeks to two months will be necessary for the treatment, before the 
formation of the cicatricial callus and the establishment of a firm union 
between the tendinous stumps. 

As with fractures, and even in a greater degree, the necessity is im- 
perative, in the treatment of lacerated tendons, to secure as perfect a 
state of immobility as can be obtained compatibly with the disposition 
of the patient; the natural opposition of the animal, sometimes ill- 
tempered and fractious at best, under the necessary restraint, causing 
at times much embarrassment to the practitioner in applying the nec- 
essary treatment. Without the necessary immobility no close connec- 
tion of the ends of the tendons can be secured. To fulfill this necessary 
condition the posterior part of the foot and the fetlock must be sup- 
ported and the traction performed by them relieved, an object which 
can be attained by the use of the high-heeled and bar shoe, or possibly 
better accomplished with a shoe of the same kind extending about 2 or 
2£ inches back of the heels. The perfect immobility of the legs is ob- 
tained in the same way as in the treatment of fracture, with splints, 
bandages, iron apparatus, plasters of adhesive mixtures, and similar 
means. So long as the dressings remain in place undisturbed, and no 
chafing or other evidence of pain are present, the dressings may be 
continued without changing, the patient being kept in the slings for a 
period sufficient to insure the perfect union of the tendons. But for a 
compound lesion, when there is laceration of the skin, some special 
care is necessary. The wound must be carefully watched and the 
dressings removed at intervals of a few days, or as often as may be 
needful, all of which additional manipulation and extra nursing, how- 
ever indispensable, still adds to the gravity of the case and renders the 
prognosis more and more serious. When the tendons have sloughed 



340 

in threads of various dimensions, or if in the absence of this process of 
mortification healthy granulations should form and fill up the wound, 
still very careful attention will be required, tbe granulating ends of the 
tendons having a tendency to bulge between the edges of the skin and 
to assume large dimensions, forming bulky excrescences or growths of a 
warty or cauliflower appearance, theremoval of which becomes a trouble- 
some matter. 

The union of the tendons will at times leave a thickening of varying 
degree near the point of cicatrization, the absorption of which becomes 
an object of difficult and doubtful accomplishment, but which may be 
promoted by moderate blistering and the use of alterative and absorbent 
mixtures or perhaps the fire iron. A shoe with heels somewhat higher 
than usual will prove a comfort to the animal and aid in moderating 
and relieving the tension of the tendons. 

Rupture of the flexor metatarsi. — This is a muscle of the anterior part 
of the shank. It is situated in front of the tibia, and is of "peculiar for- 
mation, being composed of a muscular portion with a very powerful 
tendon, which are at first distinct and separate, to be intimately united 
lower down, and terminating at the lower end by a division into four 
tendinous bands. It is a powerful muscle of the hinder shank bone, 
and also acts as a strong means of support for the stifle joint, that is, 
of the articulation of the thigh and shank bone, in front and outside of 
which it passes. Its situation and its use cause it to be liable to severe 
stretching and straining, and a rupture of some of its fibers is some- 
times the consequence. 

This may be the result of a violent effort of the animal in leaping 
over a high obstacle ; in missing his foothold and suddenly slipping 
backwards while powerfully grasping the ground with the feet in striv- 
ing to start a heavily loaded vehicle; or in making a violent effort to 
prevent a probable fall. 

The accident is immediately followed by disability which will vary 
both as to the true seat of the injury and the period of its duration. 
This rupture will not prevent the horse from standing perfectly and 
firmly on his feet when kept at rest, and while no muscular efforts are 
required from him there is no appearance of any lesion or unsoundness. 
An attempt to move him backwards, however, will cause him to throw 
all his weight upon his hind quarters, and he will refuse to raise his 
foot from the ground. If compelled to do so, or required to move for- 
ward, the hock being no longer capable of flexion, the muscle which 
effects that movement being the injured one, the opposite muscles, the 
extensors, acting freely, the entire lower part of the leg, from the hock 
down, will be suddenly, with a jerk, extended over the tibia or shank 
bone, and simultaneously with this the tendoachilles, the cord of the 
hock, the tendons of the extensors of the hock will be put in an excess- 
ively relaxed condition. Examination of the fore part of the shank 
from the stifle down to the hock may reveal soreness, and possibly some 
swelling and heat at the seat of the lesion. 



341 

Onr experience with injuries of this form satisfies us that, generally 
speaking, they are amenable to treatment. Very few instances have 
come to oar knowledge in which radical recovery has not been obtained, 
provided a sufficient time has been allowed for cicatrization to take 
place. 

In these cases, as in those already considered of simple laceration of 
tendons, the indications resemble those which apply in the treatment of 
fractures; as near a coaptation of the lacerated ends as possible, with 
immobility, being the necessary objects to secure. The first is a matter 
of very difficult accomplishment, by bandaging alone, and some have 
recommended instead the application of charges or blisters. To these 
we strongly object from their liability to cause irritation and to allow of 
excessive movement, both circumstances being unfavorable in their 
influence and hindering the action of the reparative powers. 

To secure the necessary immobility the animal should be placed in 
slings snugly applied, and kept in a narrow stall. He should also be 
tied short, and restrained from any backward movement by ropes or 
boards, and he should moreover be kept in as quiet a temper as pos- 
sible by the exclusion of all causes of irritation or excitement. Weeks 
must then elapse, not less, but frequently more than six, often eight, be> 
fore he can be considered out of danger and able to return to his labor, 
which should for a time be light and easy, and only gradually, if ever, 
increased to the measure of a thoroughly sound and strong animal. 

SUNDRY ADDITIONAL AFFECTIONS OF THE EXTREMITIES. 

Among these there are three which will principally occupy our atten- 
tion, and these may be considered as forming a single group. In some 
parts of the legs may be found certain peculiar little structures, of a sac- 
like formation, containing an oily substance designed for the lubrica- 
tion of the parts upon which they are placed for the purpose of facilita- 
ting the movements of the tendons which pass over them. These little 
sacs or muco synovial capsules are liable under peculiar conditions of 
traumatism to become subject to a diseased process, which consists 
principally in a hyper-secretion of their contents and an increase in 
dimensions, and they may undergo peculiar pathological changes of a 
character to disable an animal, and in many instances to cause serious 
blemishes which can not but depreciate his value. These growths, 
which are known as hygromata, may result from external violence, as 
blows or bruises, and may appear in the form of small, soft tumors, 
painless and not inflammatory in character, but, by a repetition of the 
cause or renewal of violence, likely to acquire a new severity. Severe 
inflammation may supervene, with suppuration, which filling up the 
cavity, the walls will become thickened and hard, and the formation of 
a tumor follow, which, resisting all forms of treatment, can only be made 
to disappear by subjecting them to the edge of the bistoury. 



342 

The elbow, the knee, and the hock are the principal parts of the body 
where these lesions are ordinarily found, and on account of their pecu- 
liar shape and the position they occupy they have received the de- 
nomination of being capped. We shall consider them in their peculiar 
aspect. 

Capped elbow. — The shoe boil, commonly so called, is almost too well 
known to require a definition from us. An enlargement at the point of 
the elbow is the lesion, so called, which is simply the result of pressure 
of the heels of the shoe upon that part. There are, of course, some 
conditions necessary for the development of the shoe boil, and for the 
pressure of the heels upon the spot where it occurs. Excessive length 
in the shoe and a formation of the animal with a cannon bone so long 
that the flexure of the knee brings the heel in contact with the elbow, 
may be termed the predisposing causes, but to these must be added 
another necessary condition in the peculiar mode of resting adopted by 
the affected animal, as exhibited in his manner of lying down, which is 
that of the cow, by resting upon the breastbone with the legs flexed 
under the body — a most eligible and natural posture for effecting the 
result which follows. 

The heel just pressing against the elbow, the hard iron of the shoe in 
contact with the soft skin, with the weight of the body added, forms 
a combination of causes which can not well fail to produce the bruise 
which in fact does follow, and which soon afterwards becomes charac- 
terized by a variety of symptoms — for a capped elbow does not always 
exhibit the same aspect. In one case, there is simply a bruise, with 
symptoms of inflammation more or less marked or severe. The parts 
will be swollen, sometimes enormously, with heat and pain, the swell- 
ing not only covering the point of the elbow, but sometimes reaching 
the axilla, and assuming such proportions that there is great difficulty 
in using the leg, the animal showing signs of lameness even to the ex- 
tent of the circumflex step, as in shoulder lameness. This cedeinatous 
condition, however, does not remain stationary. It may by degrees 
subside or perhaps disappear. In the first instance it will become more 
distinctly defined, with better marked boundaries, until it is reduced to 
a soft, rouud, fluctuating tumor, with or without heat or pain. There is 
then either a bloody or serous tumor or a purulent collection, and fol- 
lowing the puncture of its walls with the knife there will be an escape 
of blood, of serum, or of pus, as the case may be, in variable quantities. 
In either case, but principally in that of the cystic form, the tumor will 
be found to be subdivided hy septums or bands running in various 
directions. 

Various changes will follow the ox^ening of the tumor and the escape 
of its contents. In a majority of cases, the process of cicatrization will 
take place, and the cavity fill up by granulation, the discharge, at first 
abundant, gradually diminishing and the wound closing, usually with- 
out leaving any mark. At times, however, and especially if the disease 



343 

has several times repeated its course, there may remain a pendulous 
sac, partly obliterated, which a sufficient amount of excitement or irri- 
tation may soon restore to its previous dimensions and condition. 

In other cases an entirely different process takes place. The walls of 
the cavity, cyst, or abscess become ulcerated and thickened, the granu- 
lations of the sac become fibrous in their structure and till up the cav- 
ity, and it assumes the character of a hard tumor on the back of the 
elbow, sometimes partly and sometimes entirely covered by the skiu. 
It is fibrous in its nature, painless to the touch, well defined in its con- 
tour, aud may vary in size from that of a small lady apple to that of a 
child's head. 

This last form of capped elbow is the most serious of any, resisting 
all known forms of mild treatment, and removable by the knife only. 
The other forms, even that with the inflammatory aspect and its large 
cedematus swelling which interferes with the work of the animal, may 
justify a much milder prognosis, and aside from their liability to recur 
may be ranked with the comparatively harmless affections. 

So long as the danger of recurrence is the principal bad feature 
of capped elbow, the most important consideration is that of devis- 
ing a means of its prevention by curing the animal of his habit 
of resting in the cow-like posture of sternal decubitus. To prevent 
the animal from lying down is evidently the simplest method of 
keeping the heels and the elbow apart. But the impracticability of this 
prescription is apparent, since a majority of animals are obliged to lie 
down when they sleep, though it is true that a few take their sleep on 
their feet. The question of shoeing here enters into the discussion. 
The shortening of the inside branch of tbe shoe, which is the one with 
whicb the pressure is made, may be of advantage, and especially if the 
truncated end of the shoe is smooth and filed over to remove all possi- 
bility of pressure and contusion upon the skin. The protection of the 
skin of the elbow by interposing soft tissues between that and the shoe, 
or by bandaging the heel with bags, or covering it with boots, is con- 
sidered by many the best of the preventive methods, and the advantage 
to be secured by resorting to it can not be overlooked when the number 
of horses, which develop shoe boil whenever the use of the boot is inter- 
mitted, is considered. In order to prevent the animal from assuming 
the sternal decubitus, many give preference to the plan of fastening a 
piece of wood across the stall at some distance from the front wall or 
manger. It is a simple expedient, primitive perhaps, but nevertheless 
practical and followed by good results. 

The therapeutic treatment is also important. The cedematous 
swelling, indicative by its external appearance and the existing inflam- 
mation of the diseased condition, requires the use, without delay, of 
all the means attainable for its abatement, with the accompanying pain 
and the heat, with whatever may tend to accelerate the absorption of 
the exudate. Warm fomentations, repeated several times daily, are then 



344 

indicated, the degree of warmth being as high as can be comfortably 
borne. They are of easy application, and often yield important relief in 
a few hours. In some cases, however, astringents are used in prefer- 
ence, in the form of poultices or pastes, which are made to cover the 
entire swelling and allowed to remain, drying after a short time, it is 
true, and perhaps falling off, but easily renewed and reapplied. We 
have often recommended for these cases (and we renew our indorse- 
ment) a putty made of common chalk, powdered, and vinegar (acetate 
of lime — an excellent astringent), and covering the whole swelling with 
a thick coating of soft clay, made into a softish mass with water. It 
has proved very beneficial in our experience. 

These simple remedies are often all that is required. Under their use 
the swelling passes off by degrees and after a short interval the animal is 
remanded to his work again. But not uncommonly, instead of this a 
tumor or lump develops itself, puffy, not painful, and perhaps giving a 
sensation of crepitation when pressure is made on it. It is soft and 
evidently contains a liquid, and when freely opened, with a good-sized 
incision, discharges a certain amount of blood, partly liquid and partly 
coagulated, and perhaps a little hemorrhage will follow. The cavity 
should then be well washed out and a tent of oakum introduced leav- 
ing a small portion protruding through the cut to prevent it from clos- 
ing prematurely. It may be taken off the next day, and a daily cleans- 
ing will then be all that is necessary. In another case the tumor be- 
comes very soft in its whole extent, with evident fluctuation and a well- 
defined form. The discharge of the fluid is then indicated, and a free 
incision will be followed by the escape of a quantity of thin, yellowish 
liquid from a single sac. The irritation of the lining membrane with the 
finger nails, and the introduction of a tent of oakum, as before, but which 
should be changed every two or three days, during which time the parts 
should be kept free from suppuration, will inaugurate a speedy change 
and recovery will soon follow. But if the cavity is found to be subdi- 
vided in its interior by numerous bands, and the cyst proves to be mul- 
tilocular, the partitioning sacules should be torn out w r ith the fingers, 
and the cavity then treated in the same manner as the single or unilocu- 
lar sac. Another condition is that when the tumor is warm and has 
been painful, and has been soft and fluctuating indistinctly, or only at 
a given point, the evidence is of an abscess again indicating the use of 
the knife for a free incision for the exit of the contents, the general 
and first indication in all suppurative collections. 

But cases occur when all the treatment that has been detailed has 
failed to effect a full recovery, and, instead of closing properly, the cav- 
ity has become the seat of granulations other than those of a healthful 
and benign character, having assumed a new and peculiar form, and 
appearing in that of a fibrous tumor, quite apt, if not evicted, to con- 
stitute a mere eyesore, profitable and pleasing to no one. A change of 
treatment is of course then in order. The inflammation, having a dis- 



345 

position to become chronic, will require stimulating treatment in order 
to counteract that tendency by the quickened activity of the process of 
absorption, and we must again draw upon the resources of experience 
in the form of the blisters, the fomentations, the iodine and the mercu- 
rial helps as heretofore mentioned. Good results may always be insured 
from their judicious and timely administration while combatting the 
aberrations of nature, but little, from them or from any of the allies of 
the curative art, by their unintelligent and misdirected employment. 
In applying the powerful mineral inunctions much patience and wisdom 
are demanded. It should be done by carefully and perseveringly rub- 
bing in small quantities daily ; it should be done softly and gently, not 
with force of arms, nor with the expectation of producing an astonish- 
ing effect by heavy dosing and main strength in a few hours ; it should 
be after the manner of a siege rather than that of a charge. The ob- 
ject must be to induce the drugs to permeate the affected part until the 
entire mass is penetrated. Of course cases will be encountered which 
resist every form of treatment but the last of all (in dealing with ex- 
ternal and excessive growths). The tumor remains as a fixed fact ; 
it continues to grow ; it is large and pendulous at the elbow; its weight 
is estimated in pounds ; it is not an eyesore merely, but an uncomfort- 
able, burdensome mass, excoriating all the surrounding parts and being 
itself excoriated in turn $ mild treatment has failed and is no longer to 
be relied on. There is no longer an alternative between the abandon- 
ment of the patient and the amputation of the tumor. But there is a 
choice of modes and instrumentalities, a question of preference between 
the ligature, the electric cautery, and the bistoury. Each has its advo- 
cates among practitioners. In a case like the present, one of the prac- 
tical embarrassments arises in connection with the application and re- 
tention of bandages and other dressings after the amputation has been 
performed. It is a somewhat difficult problem, owing to the conforma- 
tion and proportions of the body of the patient, and involves the exer- 
cise of a considerable amount of practical ingenuity to adjust and retain 
the appliances necessary to insure a good final result in obtaining a 
proper cicatrix. 

In our long description of the treatment of the varieties of capped 
elbow we have thus far omitted any mention of one method which has 
to some extent received the sanction of experience, and which is prac- 
ticed and commended by not a few. We refer to the use of setons, in- 
troduced through and through the tumor. We mention it to say that 
our experience is adverse to this mode. We are led to this opinion not 
only by our observation of inany failures, but from the fact that in many 
cases the use of the seton has been followed by the formation of large 
fibrous tumors, which in our opinion have resulted from it. 

Gapped Jcnee. — The passage of the tendons of the extensor muscle of 
the cannon, as it glides in front of the knee joint, is assisted by one 
of the little bursee we have before mentioned, and when this becomes 



346 

the seat of a dropsical collection a hygroma is formed and the knee is 
" capped." Though somewhat analogous in its history to the capped 
elbow, there are points of difference between them. Their development 
may prove a source of great aunoyance from the fact of the blemish 
which they constitute. 

The capped knee presents itself under various conditions. It is 
sometimes the result of a cause nearly unique, as when it follows a 
bruise or contusion, often repeated, inflicted upon himself by a horse 
addicted to the habit of pawing while in the stable and striking the 
front of his stall with his knees. Another class of patients is formed 
of those weak-kneed animals which are subject to falling aud bruising 
the front of the joint against the ground, the results not being always 
of the same character. 

The lesion may be a simple bruise, or it may be a severe contusion 
with swelling, cedeinatous, hot, painful, and interfering with locomotion, 
the joint becoming stiff and sometimes so rigid that the animal is unable 
to flex it, and still, under simple treatment, the trouble may subside 
almost by spontaneous action. 

Or, again, instead of altogether passing off, the oedema may diminish 
in extent, becoming more defined in form and remain as a tumor more 
or less developed on the front part of the knee. Resulting from the 
crushing of small blood vessels, this is essentially a bloody tumor. It 
is somewhat soft, not painful, surrounded by a little swelling, round, 
more or less fluctuating, and after a few days becomes crepitant under 
the pressure of the hand. 

But instead of possessing all the characteristics of a bloody tumor it 
may also assume those of a serous growth, as often occurs when the vio- 
lence (the bruise), though perhaps slight, has been frequently repeated. 
In that case the tumor becomes better defined, generally painless, with- 
out any surrounding swelling, is much softer, is fluctuating, and more 
or less pendulous. 

In other cases, however, this serous tumor becomes the seat of an 
acute inflammation, perhaps from repetition of the original violence ; or 
it may set in as the immediate result of the bruise, and a phlegmonous 
inflammation may thus be established. The tumor is now surrounded 
with oedema, more or less diffused, and becomes hot and painful. The 
flexion of the knee can no longer take place ; walking is much inter- 
fered with — a large acute abscess has been formed, and it is this that 
constitutes the capped Jcnee. 

Whatever may be the nature of the tumors, whether shown when 
opened to be bloody, cystic, or purulent, or when they ulcerate as they 
sometimes do, though the cavity of the abscess may fill up in a short 
time, the probability is that there will always remain in front of the 
knee a plastic deposit, developed in varying degrees, which will resist 
all treatment and continue un absorbed for life. 

Though simple bruises of the knee without extensive lesions are usu- 



347 

ally of trifling account, a different prognosis must be pronounced when 
the lesion assumes more important dimensions; and though a capped 
knee may be comparatively an affair of little importance we have seen 
cases where not only extensive blemishes were left to disfigure the pa- 
tient, but where the animals had become worthless in consequence of 
the extension of the diseased process to the various elements of struct- 
ure composing the joint, and giving rise to the most complicated cases 
of carpitis. 

We have seen that usually the first symptom which is observed is the 
cedematous swelling on the fore part of the knee, the first lesion, in 
fact, and therefore requiring immediate attention. The prevention of 
the inflammation, and consequently of the abscess, is the prime object 
in view, and it may be realized by the use of warm water fomentations 
or compresses applied over the swelling, which may be used either in 
a simple form or combined with astringents, such as Goulard's extract, 
alum, or sulphate of zinc. The application of warm poultices of oil 
meal or ground flaxseed, enveloping the whole joint and kept in place 
by bandages, is often followed by absorption of the swelling, or, if the 
abscess is in process of formation, by the active secretion of pus. 
If the formation of a tumor has followed this treatment, or if it has de- 
veloped from its inception, it becomes an immediate necessity to empty 
it, and the mode of accomplishing this will vary with different cases. In 
one it should be done by a careful incision, which will allow the escape of 
the blood of the serum, or of the pus which is inclosed in the sac; in 
another it may be by means of a seton, in order that the discharge may 
be maintained and allowed to escape; and for another the more cau- 
tious mode may be adopted of emptying the cavity by means of punc- 
tures with small trochars or aspirators. The danger attending this last 
method arises from the possible sloughing of large portions of the skin, 
while that attending the first is the hazard of the possibility of the ex- 
tension of the inflammation to the capsular ligament of the knee, with 
the risk of an open joint in prospect. 

As we have remarked, the cavity, after being emptied, may rapidly 
close and leave in a short time but slight traces of its previous exist- 
ence. But in many, if not in a majority, of cases there will remain 
after the cicatrization is complete a thickening or organized exudation, 
at one time round and well defined, at another spreading by a diffused 
infiltration, to which it will be necessary to give immediate attention, 
from the fact of its tendency to form into an organized and permanent 
body. To stimulate inflammation in this diseased structure blisters are 
recommended, but chiefly for the purpose of promoting the process of 
absorption. If this treatment should fail, the use of alteratives proper 
is recommended, mercury and its compounds and iodine preparations 
probably receiving a majority of suffrages. Plain mercurial or plain 
iodine ointment, or both in combination as iodide of mercury, are com- 
monly used, and may either be applied moderately and by gentle de- 



348 

grees, as we have suggested, or more freely and vigorously with a view 
to more immediate effects, which, however, will also be more superficial. 
The use of the firing iron applied deeply with fine points is then to be 
strongly recommended, to be followed by blisters and various liniments. 
This course may generally be relied on as quite sure to be followed by 
satisfactory results. 

While the treatment is in progress it will of course be necessary to 
secure the animal in such a manner that a recurrence of the iujury will 
be impossible from similar causes to those which were previously 
responsible. 

Capped Jiock. — A bad habit prevails among some horses of rubbing 
or striking the partitions of their stalls with their hocks, with the re- 
sult of an injury which shows itself on the upper point of that bone, 
the summit of the os calcis. From its analogy to the condition of 
capped elbow the designation of capped hock has been applied to 
this condition. 

A capped hock is therefore but the development of a bruise at the 
point of the hock, which if many times repeated may excite an inflam- 
matory process, with all its usual external symptoms of swelling, heat, 
soreness, and the rest of the now familiar rdienoinena. The swelling is 
at first diffused, extending more or lesson the exterior part of the hock, 
and in a few instances running up along the tendons and muscles of 
the back of the shank. Soon, however, unless the irritating causes 
are continued and repeated, the oedema diminishes, and becoming more 
defined in its external outlines, leaves the hock capped with a hygroma. 
The hygroma, at the very beginning of the trouble, contains a bloody 
serosity which soon becomes strictly serum, but through the influence 
of an acute inflammatory action is liable to undergo a metamorphosis 
which converts it into the product of the suppurative process. 

The external appearance ought to be sufficient to determine the diag- 
nosis, but there are a few signs which may contribute toward a nicer 
identification of the lesion. The capped hock, whether under the ap- 
pearance of an acute oedeniatous swelling, or as a sero-bloody collection, 
or as a simple serous cyst, does not give rise to any remarkable local 
manifestation other than such as have already passed under our survey 
in considering similar cases, nor will it be likely to interfere with the 
functions which belong to the member in question, uuless it assumes 
very large dimensions and on each side of the tendons, as well as on the 
summit of the bone. But if the inflammation is quite high, if suppura- 
tion is developing, if there is a true abscess, or — and this is a common 
complication — especially when the kicking or rubbing of the animal is 
frequently recurring, then, besides the local trouble of the cyst or of 
the abscess, the bones become diseased and the periosteum inflamed ; 
perhaps the superior ends of the bone and its fibro-cartilage become 
affected, and a simple lesion or bruise, whatever it may have been, 
becomes complicated with periostitis and ostitis, and is naturally accom- 



349 

panied with lameness, developed in a greater or less degree, which in 
some cases may be permanent and in others increased by work. But 
these complications are not common or frequent. 

Capped hocks are in many cases amenable to treatment, and yet they 
often become the opprobrium of the practitioner by remaining, as they 
frequently do, an eyesore on the top of the hock ; not interfering, it is 
true, with the work of the horse, but fixing upon him the stigma of 
what, in humau estimation, and especially in that of the tribe of "prac- 
tical politicians," is a most unreliable and objectionable reputation, to- 
wit, that of being a habitual " kicker," and, worse than all, one that 
kicks where he receives his provender. 

The maxim that "an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure" 
fits the present case very neatly. A horse whose hocks have a some- 
what puffy look and whose skin on the front of the hock is loose and 
flabby, justly subjects himself to a suspicion of his addictedness to this 
bad habit. But he may easily be either convicted or exonerated — a lit- 
tle watching will soon establish the truth. If, then, the verdict is one 
of conviction, precautions should be immediately adopted against a con- 
tinuance of the evil. The padding of the sides of the stall with straw 
mats or mattresses and covering the posts with similar material in such 
a manner that no hard surface shall be exposed with which to come in 
contact, will reduce the evil to its minimum. He may jar his frame 
when he kicks, but even then there will be less force in the concus- 
sion than if it impinged upon the solid plank, and cuts and abrasions 
can not be inflicted by a property made cushion. Hobbles are also 
rightly recommended with a view to the required restraint of motion, 
so applied as to secure the leg with which the kicking is performed, or 
even both hind legs, yet in such a manner as shall not interfere with 
the movements of lying down and rising again and yet allowing that 
of kicking backwards. Boots similar in pattern to those which are 
used for the prevention of shoe boil are also prescribed. These are 
placed above the hock and retained by straps tightly fastened. But 
we apprehend that the difficulty of retaining them in the proper 
place without the danger of chafing from the tightness of the straps 
might form an objection to their use. Notwithstanding all precautions, 
hocks will be capped in the future as in the past, and the study of their 
treatment will always be in order. 

The mode of dealing with them will of course be greatly influenced 
by the condition of the parts. When the inflammation is excessive and 
the swelling large, hot, and painful to the touch, the application of 
warm water will be very beneficial. The leg should' be well fomented 
several times a day, for from fifteen to twenty minutes each time, a 
strong decoction of marsh-mallow leaves being added to the water, and 
after each application swathed with flannel bandages soaked in the 
same warm mixture. A few days of this treatment will usually effect 



350 

a resolution of the inflammation, if not complete, at least sufficiently so 
to disclose the correct outlines of the hygroma and exhibit its pecu- 
liar and specific symptoms. The expediency of its removal and the 
method of accomplishing it are then to be considered, with the question 
of opening it to give exit to its contents. If the fluid is of a purulent 
character the indication is in favor of its immediate discharge — no time 
should be lost, and it should be by means of a small opening made with 
a narrow bistoury. If, however, the fluid is a serosity, we prefer to re- 
move it by punctures with a very small trochar. Onr reason for special 
caution in these cases is our fear of the possibility of the existence of 
diseased conditions of a severe character in the pseudo joint. For the 
same reason we prefer the treatment of those growths by external ap- 
plications. In the first stages of the disease a severe and stiff blister 
entirely covering the cyst, perhaps not yet completely formed, when 
the inflammation has subsided will be of great benefit by its stimulat- 
ing effect, the absorption it may excite, and the pressure which when 
dry it will maintain upon the tumor. If, however, the thickening of the 
growth fails to diminish it should be treated with some of the iodine 
preparations in the form of ointments, pure or in combination with po- 
tassa, mercury, etc., of various strengths and in various proportions. 
Our opinion of setons is not favorable, but the actual cautery, by deep 
and fine firing, in points — needle cauterization — we believe to be the 
best mode of treatment, and especially when applied early. 

Whatever treatment may be adopted for capped hock, patience must 
be one of the ingredients. In these parts absorption is slow and the 
skin is very thick, and its return to a soft, pliable, natural condition, 
if effected at all, will only take place after weeks added to other weeks 
of medical treatment and patient waiting. 

Interfering — Speedy cuts. — These designations belong to certain special 
injuries of the extremities, produced by similar causes, giving rise to 
kindred pathological lesions with allied phenomena, requiriug about 
the same treatment and often followed by the same results, to-wit, a 
blemish which may not only subject the animal to a suspicion of un- 
soundness, but in some special circumstances interfere with his ability 
to labor. It is known as " interfering " when the location of the trouble 
is the inside of the fetlock of either the fore or hind leg. It is 
called " speedy cut" when it occurs on the inside of the fore leg, a little 
below the knee, at the point of contact of that joint with the cannon. 

It is always the result of a blow, self-inflicted, of varying severity, 
and giving rise to various lesions. At times the injury is too slight to 
be seriously noticed, the hair being scarcely cut and the skin unmarked. 
At other times the skin will be cut through, partly or wholly, and it 
may for the time cause a sufficient amount of pain to check the motion 
of the animal and induce him to suspend his labor through his inability 
to use the wounded limb, traveling meanwhile for a short space on three 
legs only. Sometimes a single blow will suffice, or again there will be 



351 

a repetition of lighter strokes. In the latter case the parts will become 
much swollen, hot and so painful to the touch that the motion of the 
knee or the fetlock will be sufficiently disturbed to cause lameness of a 
degree of severity corresponding wilh that of the lesion. Following the 
subsidence of this diffused and cedematous swelling is sometimes the 
formation of a tumor, either at the knee or the fetlock. This may be 
soft at first or become so by degrees, with fluctuation, its contents being 
at first extravasated blood, and later a serosity ; or, if there has been a 
sufficient degree of inflammation, it may become suppurative. The re- 
sult of the fault of interfering may thus be exhibited, whether at the 
knee or at the fetlock, as characterized by all the pathological condi- 
tions which have appeared as accompaniments of capped knee or capped 
hock. If, in consequence of the force of the blow or blows, the inflam- 
mation has been unusually severe, a mortification of the skin may be- 
come one of the consequences, a slough taking place, succeeded by a 
cutaneous ulcer on the inside of the fetlock or where the greater num- 
ber of the original wounds are inflicted. If the interfering has been 
often repeated it may be followed by another condition, which has been 
considered in our remarks upon other affections. It is a plastic exuda- 
tion or thickening of the parts, which are commonly said to have be- 
come " callous," and the effect of it is to destroy the regularity of the 
outlines of the joint to an extent which constitutes a serious blemish, 
which will be permanent, and according to the degree of the aberration 
from the natural and symmetrical lines will inevitably depreciate the 
commercial value of the animal. 

An animal in interfering may thus exhibit a range of symptoms 
which, from the simplest form of a mere "touching," may successively 
assume the serious characters of an ugly cicatrix, a hard, plastic 
swelling, or perhaps, as witnessed at the knee, of periostitis with its 
sequelae. 

If a single and constantly recurring cause — a blow — be the starting 
point in interfering,* we may now consider the subject of the predispo- 
sition which brings such serious results upon the suffering animal, and 
the conditions which lead to and accompany it. These are numerous, 
but the first in frequency and importance is peculiarity of conforma- 
tion in the animals addicted to it. The first class will include horses 
whose chest is narrow and whose legs do not stand straight and up- 
right, but are crooked and pigeon toed in and out. The second class 
includes those whose legs are weak, either from youth or hard labor, 
or from severe attacks of sickness. Another class is made up of those 
having abnormally developed feet, or which have been badly shod with 
unnecessarily wide or heavy shoes. Another class consists of those 
that are affected with swollen fetlocks or chronic oedeniatous swelling 
of the ]eg. Another is formed of animals with a peculiar action, as those 
whose knee action is very high, and it is these that furnish most of the 
cases of speedy cut, 



352 

The prognosis of interfering is never a very serious one. However 
violent the blow may be it is rarely that subsequent complications of a 
troublesome nature occur. The principal evil attending it is a liability 
to be followed by a thickened or callous deposit which is not only an 
eyesore and a blemish, but constitutes a new and increased predisposi- 
tion. The remark that " an animal which has interfered once is always 
liable to interfere," is often confirmed and sanctioned by a recurrence 
of the trouble. 

Another point in which there is a resemblance between this lesion 
and others which we have considered is in its responsiveness to the saKae 
treatment with them. Indeed, the prescription of warm fomentations, 
soothing applications, and astringent and resolvent mixtures, in a ma- 
jority of cases, is the first that occurs all through the list. If the swell- 
ing assumes the character of a serous collection, pressure, cold water 
and bandages will contribute to its removal. If suppuration seems to 
be established, and the swelling assumes the character of a developing 
abscess, the hot poultices of flaxseed or of boiled vegetables and the 
embrocations of suppurative or sedative ointments, those of basilicon, 
or propuleum, impregnated with preparations of opium or belladonna — 
all these recommend themselves by their general adaptation and the 
beneficial results which have followed their administration, not less in 
one case than in another. When an abscess has formed and is fluctu- 
ating, it should be carefully but fully opened to evacuate the pus. If 
it is a serous cyst, some care is necessary in emptying it, and the pos- 
sibility of the extension of the inflammation to the joint must be taken 
into consideration. When the cavities have been emptied and have 
closed by filling up with granulations, or if, not being opened, the con- 
tents have been reabsorbed, and there remains in either case a plastic 
exudation and a tendency to the callous organization that may yet exist, 
blisters under their various forms, including those of cantharides, of 
mercury, and of iodine are then indicated, principally in the early stages, 
as it is then that their effects will prove most satisfactory. The use of 
the actual cautery, with fine points, penetrating deeply throughout the 
enlargement, has in our hands, when employed in the very early stages 
of its formation, nearly always brought on a radical recovery with com- 
plete absorption of the thickening. 

Stringhalt. — The characteristic symptom, if not in fact the sum of 
the symptomatology of this disease, is the spasmodic flexion, more or 
less violent, of the hock, sometimes to the extent of striking the abdo- 
men with the fetlock of the affected leg, and at others only sufficient to 
lift it a few inches from the ground, but always with the same sudden, 
uncontrollable jerk. The habit is unaffected by the gait of the animal, 
and whether trotting, walking, or merely turning around, it is all the 
same. It does not seem to be influenced by the horse's age, young and 
old being alike affected. Its first manifestations are sometimes very 
slight. It has been noticed as occurring to an animal when backing 



353 

out of his stable and ceasing immediately after. In some animals it is 
best seen when the animal is turning around on the affected leg, and is 
not noticed when he moves straight forward. That this peculiar action 
interferes with facility of locomotion and detracts from a horse's claim 
to soundness can not for a moment be denied. 

Veterinarians and pathologists are yet in doubt in respect to the 
cause of this affection, as well as to its essential nature. Whether it 
results from disease of the hock, of an ulcerative character ; whether it 
springs from a malformation ; whether it is purely a muscular or purely 
a nervous lesion, or a compound of both, it still continues, if an etiolo- 
gist is bound to possess universal knowledge within the scope of his 
special studies, to be his opprobrium and his puzzle. 

Various experiments in the line of treatment have been instituted, 
but none have been crowned with satisfactory results. We incline to 
the opinion that some undesignated disease of the hock is responsible 
for it, and believe that in the present state of knowledge the best pre- 
scription that can be devised is the safe and economical one of rest, a 
long rest in a pasture, where unmolested nature shall be permitted to 
bring about any necessary change that may be appropriate to the case. 
Whatever other treatment it may be considered wise to undertake must 
be of a widely different character, and must be determined upon by 
those whose chosen and appropriate sphere is the domain of operative 
surgery. 

Embolisms. — There are certain forms of lameness which are very 
peculiar in their manifestation, and which to the non-professional mind 
must appear to belong rather to the domain of mystery or theory than 
to be subjects of experimental and definite knowledge. Yet they are 
none the less susceptible of demonstration and positive knowledge than 
many facts which, plain and familiar to the general comprehension now, 
were once ranked among things occult and unsearchable. An embo- 
lism, considered as a cause of lameness, may find a place among these 
understood mysteries. 

Under certain peculiar conditions of inflammation of the blood ves- 
sels, clots of blood are sometimes formed in the arteries and find their 
way in the general circulation. At first, while very small, or suffi- 
ciently so to pass from one vessel to another, they move from a small 
vessel to a larger, and from that to one still larger, constantly increas- 
ing in size until at some given point, from their inability to enter smaller 
vessels, their movement is finally arrested. The artery is thus effect- 
ually dammed, and the clot in a short time cuts off completely the sup- 
ply of blood from the parts beyond. This is the embolism, and it often 
gives rise to sudden and excessive lameness of a very painful character. 

Embolisms may form in any of the arteries of the body, and doubt- 
less have been the cause of many cases of lameness which could never 
be accounted for. If they exist in small arteries their diagnosis will 
probably fail to be made out with certainty, but when situated in the 
J1035 23 



354 

larger trunks a strong suspicion of their presence may be excited. In 
some cases they may even be recognized with positive accuracy, as 
when the vessels which supply the posterior extremities are affected by 
the blocking up of the posterior aorta or its ramifications. 

The existence of embolisms of the arteries of the hind leg may always 
be suspected when the following history is known : The general health 
of the auimal is good, but symptoms of lameness in one of the legs have 
been developed, becoming more marked as he is worked, and especially 
when driven at a fast gait. But the disturbance is not permanent, and 
the lameuess disappears almost immediately upon his being permitted 
to rest. There is an increase of the difficulty, however, and, though lie 
may walk normally, he will, when made to trot, very soon begin to 
slacken his pace and to show signs of the trouble, and if urged to in- 
crease his speed will become lamer and lamer; an abuudant perspira- 
tion will break out; he will refuse to go, and if forced he shows weak- 
ness behind ; seems ready to fall, and perhaps does fall. While on his 
feet the leg is kept in constant motion, up and down, and is kept from 
the ground as if the contact was too painful to bear. If undisturbed 
this series of symptoms will gradually subside, sometimes very soon, 
and occasionally alter a few hours he will return to an apparently per- 
fect condition. A return to labor will lead to a renewal of the same 
incidents. 

A history like this suggests a strong suspicion of embolism of an 
artery of the hind leg, and this suspicion will be confirmed by the ex- 
ternal symptoms exhibited by the animal. The total absence of any other 
disease which might account for the lameness, and a manifest diminu- 
tion of heat over a part or the whole of the extremity, when compared 
with the opposite side or with any other portion of the body; a sensa- 
tion of cold attendant on the pain, but gradually subsiding as the pain 
subsides, and the circulation, quickened by the rest, has been reestab- 
lished throughout the extremity; all these are confirmatory circum- 
stances. Still, it is thus far only a suspicion, and absolute certainty is 
yet wanting. To establish the truth of the case the rectal taxis must 
be resorted to. The hands then, well prepared and carefully introduced 
into the rectum, must explore for the truth, first feeling for the large 
blood vessels which, dividing at the aorta, separate to supply the right 
and left legs. These must be compared in respect to the pulsation and 
other particulars. The artery which is healthy will of course exhibit 
all the proper conditions of that state. On the other hand, if the vessel 
appears to the feel hard, more or less cordy, and pulseless, or giving a 
sensation of fluttering, as of a small volume of blood with a trickling 
motion passing through a confined space, the difference between the 
sides will make the case plain. The first will be the full flow of the cir- 
culation through au unobstructed channel, the other a forced passage 
of the fluid between the embolism and the coats of the artery. 



355 

In such a case the prognosis is necessarily a grave one. No form of 
treatment can be advised; and the suffering of a helpless and useless 
animal can only be terminated by that which ends all. 

Oases occur, however, where this condition of the blood-vessels exists 
in a much less degree, and the diseased condition is not sufficiently pro- 
nounced for final condemnation. There may even be a possibility of the 
absorption of the clot, and that an increase of the circulation may be 
sufficient to supply the parts with blood. In such cases attempts may 
be made looking to the possibility of relief, and the pasture, held, or the 
stable, and unmolested nature must be trusted for the rest. 

Sprains of the loins. — This is an affection which suggests to the mind 
the idea of muscular injury, and is difficult to distinguish from many 
similar cases. If the animal shrinks from the slightest pressure or 
pinching of the spine, in the region of the loins, he is by many pro- 
nounced to be " lame in the loins,' 7 or " sprained in the loins," or " weak 
in the kidneys." This is a grave error, as in fact this simple and gentle 
yielding to such a pressure is not a pathological sign, but is normal and 
significant of health. Yet there are several conditions to which the 
definition of " sprains of the loins" may apply which are not strictly 
normal. The muscles of the back and those of the loins proper, as the 
psoas, may have been injured, or again there may be trouble of a rheu- 
matic nature, perhaps suggestive of lumbago. Diseases of the bones 
of the vertebral column, or even those of the organs of circulation, may 
give rise to an exhibition of similar symptoms. These symptoms are 
characteristic of a loss of rigidity or firmness of the vertebral column, 
both when the animal is at rest and in action. In the former condition, 
or when at rest, there is an arched condition of the back and a con- 
strained posture in standing, with the hind legs separated. In the latter 
there is a lateral, balancing movement at the loins, principally noticea- 
ble while the animal is in the act of trotting — a peculiar motion, some- 
times referred to as a "crick in the back," or what the French call a 
"tour de bateau." If, while in action, the animal is suddenly made to 
halt, the act is accompanied with much pain, the back suddenly arching 
or bending laterally, and perhaps the hind legs thrown under the body, 
as if unable to perform their functions in stopping, and sometimes it is 
only accomplished at the cost of a sudden and severe fall. This mani- 
festation is also exhibited when the animal is called upon to back, when 
a repetition of the same symptoms will also occur. . 

If a slight pressure on the back or the loins is followed by a moderate 
yielding of the animal, it is, as we before remarked, a good sign of 
health. With a sprain of the loins pressure of any kind is painful, and 
will cause the animal to bend or to crouch under it more or less, accord- 
ing to the weight of the pressure. Heavy loads, and even heavy har- 
nessing will develop this tenderness. In lying down he seems to suffer 
much discomfort, and often accompanies the act with groaning, and 
when compelled to rise does so only with great difficulty and seldom 
succeeds without repeated efforts. 



356 

Sprains of muscles proper, when recent, will always be accompanied 
by this series of symptoms, and the fact of their exhibition, with an ex- 
cessive sensibility of the parts, and possibly with a degree of swelling, 
will always justify a diagnosis of acute muscular lesion ; and especially 
so if accompanied by a history of violent efforts, powerful muscular 
strains, falls, heavy loading, etc., connected with the case. But if the 
symptoms have been of slow development and gradual increase, it be- 
comes a more difficult task to determine whether the diagnosis points 
to pathological changes in the structure of the muscles or of the bones, 
the nervous centers or the blood-vessels of the region. And yet it is 
important to decide as to which particular structure is affected in ref- 
erence to the question of prognosis, since the degree of the gravity of 
the lesion will depend largely upon whether the disabled condition of 
the animal is due to an acute or a chronic disease. The prescription 
which will necessarily first of all suggest itself for sprains of the loins 
is rest. An animal so affected should be immediately placed in slings 
and none of his efforts to release himself should be allowed to succeed. 
Hot compresses, cold-water douches, sweating applications, stimulat- 
ing frictions, strengthening charges, blistering ointments of cantharides 
and the actual cautery, all have their advocates ; but in no case can 
the immobility obtained by the slings be dispensed with. In many 
cases electricity has also yielded good results, where the weakness of 
the hind quarters was dependent on disease of the nervous centers. 



fill 





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THE SLING IN USE 



DISEASES OF THE FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT. 



BY A. A. HOLCOMBE, D. V. S. 



ANATOMICAL REVIEW OP THE FOOT. 

In a description of the foot of the horse it is customary to include 
only the hoof and its contents, yet, from a zoological standpoint, the 
foot includes all the leg from the knee and the hock down. 

The foot of the horse is undoubtedly the most important part of the 
animal, in so far as veterinary surgery is concerned, for the reason that 
this member is subject to so many injuries and diseases, which, in part 
or in whole, render the patient unfit for the labor demanded of him. The 
old aphorism, " no foot no horse," is as true today as when first ex- 
pressed; in fact, domestication, coupled with the multiplied uses to 
which the animal is put, and the constant reproduction of hereditary 
defects and tendencies, have largely transformed the ancient " compan- 
ion of the wind" into a very common piece of machinery which is often 
out of repair, and, at best, is but short-lived in its usefulness. 

Since the value of the horse depends largely, or even entirely upon 
his ability to labor, it is essential that his organs of locomotion should 
be kept sound ; and to accomplish this end it is necessary not only to 
know how to cure all diseases to which these organs are liable, but, bet- 
ter still, how to prevent them. 

An important prerequisite to the detection and cure of disease is a 
knowledge of the construction and function of the parts which may be 
involved in the diseased process : hence, first of all, the anatomical 
structures must be understood. 

The bones of the fetlock and foot constitute the skeleton on which the 
other structures are built, and comprise the lower end of the cannon 
bone (the metacarpus in the foreleg, the metatarsus in the hind legV. the 
two sesamoids, the large pastern or suffraginis, the small pastern or 
coronet, the coffin bone or os pedis, and the small sesamoid or navicular 
bone. (Plate xxxn, Fig. 3.) 

The cannon bone extends from the knee or hock to the fetlock, is 
cylindrical in shape and stands nearly or quite perpendicular. 

The sesamoids occur in pairs, are small, shaped like a three-faced 
pyramid, and are set behind the fetlock joint, at the upper end of the 
suffraginis, with the base of the pyramid down. 

357 



358 

The suffraginis is a very compact bone, set in an oblique direction 
downward and forward, and extends from the cannon bone to the 
coronet. 

The coronet is a short, cube-shaped bone, set between the suffraginis 
and coffin boue, in the same oblique direction. 

The coffin bone forms the end of the foot and is shaped like the horny- 
box in which it is enclosed. 

The navicular bone is short, flattened above and below, and is attached 
to the coffin bone behind. 

All of these bones are covered on the surfaces with a cartilage of 
incrustation which goes to make up the joints, while the portions 
between are covered with a fibrous membrane called the periosteum. 

The joints of the legs are of especial importance, since any inter- 
ference with their function very largely impairs the value of the animal 
for most purposes. As the joints of the foot and ankle are at the point 
of greatest concussion they are the ones most subject to injury and 
disease. 

There are three of these joints — the fetlock, pastern, and coffin. They 
are made by the union of two or more bones, held together by ligaments 
of fibrous tissue, and are lubricated by a thick viscid fluid, called syno- 
via, which is secreted by a special membraue inclosing the joints. 

The fetlock joint is made by the union of the lower end of the cannon 
and the upper end of the large pastern bones, supplemented by the two 
sesamoids, so placed behind the upper end of the pastern that the joint 
is capable of a very extensive motion. These bones are held together 
by ligaments, only one of which — the suspensory — demands special 
mention. 

The suspensory ligament of the fetlock starts from the knee, extends 
down behind the cannon, lying between the two splint bones, until near 
the fetlock, where it divides and sends a branch on either side of the 
joint, downward and forward, to become attached on the sides of the 
extensor tendon at the lower end of the pastern bone. As it crosses the 
sesamoids on the posterior borders of the fetlock it throws out fibers, 
which hold it fast to these bones. (Plate xxxn, Fig. 2.) 

The pastern joint is made by the union of the two pastern bones. 

The coffin joint is made by the union of the small pastern, coffin, and 
small sesamoid or navicular bones, the latter being set behind and be- 
neath the joint surface of the coffin bone, in such a way as to largely 
receive the weight of the small pastern. 

Three tendons serve to move the bones of the foot one on another. 
Two of these flex or beud the joints, while the other extends or straight- 
ens the column of bones. (Plate xxx, Fig. 5.) 

The flexor pedis perforans, or deep flexor of the foot, passes down be- 
hind the cannon bone, lying against the suspensory ligament in front, 
crosses the fetlock joint in the groove made by the union of the two 
sesamoids, and is attached to the bottom of the coffin bone, after cover- 



359 

ing the navicular, by a wide expansion of its fibers. It is the function 
of this tendon to flex the coffin bone and with it the horny box. 

The flexor- pedis perforatus, or superficial flexor of the foot, follows 
the course of the preceding tendon and is attached to the middleof the 
ankle. The function of this tendon is to flex the foot at the fetlock. 

The extensor pedis runs down in front of the leg, is attached on the 
most prominent point of the coffin bone, and has for function the 
straightening of the bones of the ankle and foot. 

The bones, ligaments, and tendons are covered by a loose connective 
tissue, which gives a symmetry to the parts by filling up and rounding 
off. and all are protected by the skin and hoof. 

The sldn of the fetlock and ankle is generally characterized by its 
thickness and the leugth of its hairs, especially around the hind parts 
of the fetlock joint in certain breeds of horses. The most important 
part of this envelope is that known as the coronary band. 

The coronary band is that portion of the skin which secretes the horn 
by which the wall of the hoof is made. This horn much resembles the 
nail which grows on the fingers and toes of man. It is composed of 
hollow, cylindrical tubes, extending from the coronary band to the 
lower border of the hoof, which are held together by a tenacious opaque 
matter. (Plate xxix, Fig. 1.) 

The hoof is a box of horn, consisting of a wall, sole, and frog, and 
contains, besides the coffin, navicular and part of the small pastern 
bones, the sensitive laminse, plantar cushion and the lateral cartilages. 
(Plate xxx, Fig. 4.) 

The sole of the foot incloses the box on the ground surface, is shaped 
like the circumference of the foot, except that a V -shaped opening is 
left behind for the reception of the frog, and is concave on the lower 
surface. The sole is produced by the velvety tissue, a thin membrance 
covering the plantar cushion and other soft tissues beneath the coffin 
bone. The horn of the sole differs from the horn of the wall, in that 
its tubes are not straight, and from the fact that it scales off in pieces 
over the whole surface. 

T he frog is a triangular shaped body, divided into two equal parts by 
a deep fissure, extending from its apex in front to the base. It fills the 
triangular space in the sole to which it is intimately attached by its bor- 
ders. The horn of the frog is produced in the same manner as the sole, 
but it differs from both the wall and sole, in that the horn is soft, moist, 
and elastic to a remarkable degree. It is the function of the frog to 
destroy shock and to prevent slipping. 

The sensitive lamina? are thin plates of soft tissue, coveriug the en- 
tire anterior surface of the coffin bone. They are present in great num- 
bers, and by fitting into corresponding grooves on the inner surface of 
the horn of the wall the union of the soft and horny tissues is made 
complete. (Plate xxix, Fig. 1.) 

The plantar cushion is a thick pad of fibrous tissue, placed behind and 
under the navicular and coffin bones, and resting on the sole and frog, 



360 

for the purpose of receiving the downward pressure of the column of 
bones and to destroy shock. (Plate xxix, Fig. 4.) 

The lateral cartilages are attached, one on either side, to the wings of 
the coffiu bone by their inferior borders. They are thiu plates of fibro- 
cartilage, and their function is to assist the frog and adjacent structures 
to regain their proper position after having been displaced by the weight 
of the body while the foot rested on the ground. (Plate xxix, Fig. 2.) 

FAULTS OF CONFORMATION. 

A large percentage of the horses have feet whicb are not perfect in 
conformation, aud as a consequence of these imperfections they are es- 
pecially predisposed to certain injuries and diseases. 

Flat feet is that condition in which the sole has little or no convexity. 
It is a peculiarity common to some breeds, especially heavy, lymphatic 
animals raised on low, marshy soils. It is confined to the forefeet, which 
are generally broad, low heeled, and with a wall less upright than is 
seen in the perfect foot. 

In flat-foot there can be little or no elasticity in the sole, for the rea- 
son that it has no arch, and the weight of the animal is received on the 
entire plantar surface as it rests upon the ground instead of on the wall. 
For these reasons such feet are particularly liable to bruises of the sole, 
corns, pumiced sole, and excessive suppuration when the process is once 
established. Horses with flat-foot should be shod with a shoe having a 
wide web, pressing on the wall only, while the heels and frog are never 
to be pared. Flat-foot generally has weak walls, and as a consequence 
the nails of the shoe are readily loosened and the shoe cast. 

Clubfoot is a term applied to such feet as have the wall set nearly per- 
pendicular. When this condition is present the heels are high, the fet- 
lock joint is thrown forward, or knuckles, and the weight of the animal 
is received on the toes. Many mules are clubfooted, especially behind, 
where it seems to cause little or no inconvenience. Clubfoot may be 
cured by cutting the tendons in severe cases, but as a rule special shoe- 
ing is the only measure of relief that can be adopted. The toe should 
not be pared, but the heels are to be lowered as much as possible, and 
a shoe put on with a long projecting toe piece, slightly turned up, while 
the heels of the shoe are to be made thin. 

Crooked foot is that condition in which one side of the wall is higher 
than the other. If the inside wall is the higher, the ankle is thrown 
outward, so that the fetlock joints are abnormally wide apart and the 
toes close together. Animals with this deformity are u pigeon-toed," 
and are prone to interfere, the inside toe striking the opposite fetlock. 
If but one foot is affected, the other being perfect, the liability to in- 
terfere is still greater, for the reason that the fetlock of the perfect leg 
is more near the center plane. 

When the outside heel is the higher the ankle is thrown in and the 



361 

toe turns out. Horses with such feet interfere with the heel. If but 
one foot is so affected, the liability to interfere is less than where both 
feet axe affected, for the reason that the ankle of the perfect leg is not 
so near to the center line. Such animals are especially liable to stum- 
bling and to lameness from injury to the ligaments of the fetlock joints. 
The deformity is to be overcome by such shoeing as will equalize the 
disparity in length of walls, and by proper boots to protect the fetlocks 
from interfering. 

INTERFERING. 

An animal is said to interfere when one foot strikes the opposite leg, 
as it passes by, during locomotion. The inner surface of the fetlock 
joint is the part most subject to this injury, although, under certain 
conditions, it may happen to any part of the ankle. It is seen more 
often in the hind than in the fore legs. Interfering causes a bruise of 
the skin and deeper tissues, generally accompanied by an abrasion of 
the surface. It may cause lameness, dangerous tripping, and thickening 
of the injured parts. 

Causes. — Faulty conformation is the most prolific cause of interfer- 
ing. When the bones of the leg are so united that the toe of the foot 
turns in (pigeon toed), or when the fetlock joints are close together 
and the toe turns out, when the leg is so deformed that the whole foot 
and ankle turn either in or out, interfering is almost sure to follow. It 
may happen, also, when the feet grow too long ; from defective shoeing; 
rough or slippery roads; from the exhaustion of labor or sickness; 
swelling of the leg ; high knee action ; fast work, and because the chest 
or hips are too narrow. 

Symptoms. — Generally, the evidences of interfering are easily de- 
tected, for the parts are tender, swollen, and the skin broken. But 
very often, especially in trotters, the flat surface of the hoof strikes the 
fetlock without evident injury, and attention is directed to these parts 
only by the occasional tripping and unsteady gait. In such cases proof 
of the cause may be had by walking and trotting the animal, after first 
painting the inside toe and quarter of the suspected foot with a thin 
coating of chalk, charcoal, mud, or paint. 

Treatment. — When the trouble is due to deformity or faulty conforma- 
tion it may not be possible to overcome the defect. 

In such cases, and as well in those due to exhaustion or fatigue, the 
fetlock or ankle boot must be used. In many instances interfering 
may be prevented by proper shoeing. The outside heel and quarter of 
the foot on the injured leg should be lowered sufficiently to change the 
relative position of the fetlock joint, by bringing it further away from 
the center plane of the body, thereby permitting the other foot to pass 
by without striking. 

A very slight change is often sufficient to effect this result. At the 
same time the offending foot should be shod, that the shoe may set well 



362 

under the hoof at the point responsible for the injury. The shoo 
should be reset every three or four weeks. 

When the cause has been removed cold water bandages to the in- 
jured parts will soon remove the soreness and swelling, especially in 
recent cases. If, however, the fetlock has become calloused from long- 
continued bruising, a Spanish fly blister over the parts, repeated in 
two or three weeks' time if necessary, will aid in reducing the leg to its 
natural condition. 

KNUCKLING OR COCKED ANKLES. 

Knuckling is a partial dislocation of the fetlock joint, in which the 
relative position of the pastern bone to the cannon and coronet bones 
is changed, the pastern becoming more nearly perpendicular, with the 
lower end of the cannon bone resting behind the center line of the 
suffraginis, while the lower end of this bone rests behind the center 
liue of the coronet. While knuckling is not always an unsoundness, it 
nevertheless predisposes to stumbling and to fracture of the pastern. 

Causes. — Young foals are quite subject to this condition, but in the 
great majority of cases it is only temporary. It is largely due to the 
fact that, before birth, the legs were flexed; and time is required, after 
birth, for the ligaments, tendons, and muscles to adapt themselves to 
the function of sustaining the weight of the body. 

Horses with erect pasterns are very prone to knuckle as they grow 
old, especially in the hind legs. All kinds of heavy work, particularly 
in hilly districts, and fast work on hard race-tracks or roads are excit- 
ing causes of knuckling. It is also commonly seen as an accompani- 
ment to that faulty conformation called club-foot, in which the toe of 
the wall is perpendicular and short and the heels high, a condition 
most often seen in the mule, especially the hind feet. 

Lastly, knuckling is produced by disease of the suspensory ligament, 
or of the flexor tendons, whereby they are shortened, and by disease 
of the fetlock joints. 

Treatment. — In young foals no treatment is necessary, unless there is 
some deformity present, since the legs straighten up without inter- 
ference in the course of a few weeks' time. When kuuckling has com 
menced the indications are to relieve the tendons and ligaments by 
proper shoeing. The foot is to be prepared for the shoe by shortening 
the toe as much as possible, leaving the heels high ; or if the foot is 
prepared in the usual way the shoe should be thin in front, with thick 
heels or high calks. For the hind feet a long-heeled shoe with calks 
seems to do best. Of course, when possible, the causes of knuckling 
are to be removed, but since this can not always be done, the time may 
come when the patient can no longer perform any service, particularly 
in those cases where both forelegs are affected, and it becomes neces- 
sary either to destroy the animal or secure relief by surgical inter- 
ference. In such cases the tendons, between the fetlock and knee, may 



363 

be divided for the purpose of securing temporary relief. Firing and 
blistering the parts responsible for the knuckling may, in some in- 
stances, effect a cure ; but a consideration of these measures properly 
belongs to the treatment of the diseases in which knuckling simply 
appears as a sequel. 

WIND- GALLS. 

Joints and tendons are furnished with sacs containing a lubricating 
fluid called synovia. When these sacs are overdistended, by reason 
of an excessive secretion of synovia, they are called wind-galls. They 
form a soft, puffy tumor about the size of a hickory nut, and are most 
often found in the foreleg, at the upper part of the fetlock joint, be- 
tween the tendon and the shin-bone. When they develop in the hind 
leg it is not unusual to see them reach the size of a walnut. Occasion- 
ally they appear in front of the fetlock on the border of the tendon. 
The majority of the horses are not subject to them after colthood is 
passed. 

Causes. — Wind-galls are often seen in young, overgrown horses, 
where the body seems to have outgrown the ability of the joints to sus- 
tain the weight. In cart and other horses used to hard work, in trotters 
with excessive knee action, in hurdle racers and hunters, and in most 
cow-ponies there is a predisposition to wind-galls. Street-car horses 
and others used to start heavy loads on slippery streets are the ones 
most apt to develop wind-galls in the hind legs. 

Symptoms. — The tumor is more or less firm and tense when the foot 
is on the ground, but is soft and compressible when the foot is off the 
ground. In old horses wind-galls generally develop slowly and cause 
no inconvenience. If they are caused by excessive tension of the joint 
the tumor develops rapidly, is tense, hot, and painful, and the animal 
is exceedingly lame. The patient stands with the joint flexed, walks 
with short steps, the toe only being placed on the ground. When the 
tumor is large and situated upon the inside of the leg it may be injured 
by interfering, causing stumbling and inflammation of the sac. Eest 
generally causes the tumor to diminish in size, only to fill up again after 
renewed labor. Iu old cases the tumors are hardened, and may be- 
come converted into bone by a deposit of the lime salts. 

Treatment. — The large, puffy joints of suckling colts, as a rule, re- 
quire no treatment, for as the animal grows older the parts clean up, 
and after a time the swelling entirely disappears. 

When the trouble is due to an injury, entire rest is to be secured by 
the use of slings and a high-heeled shoe. Gold water douches should 
be used once or twice a day, followed by cold water bandages, until 
the fever has subsided and the soreness is largely removed, when a 
blister is to be applied. 

In old wind-galls, which cause more or less stiffness, some relief may 
be had by the use of cold compress bandages, elastic boots, or the red 



364 

iodide of mercury blisters. Opening the sacs, as recommended by some 
authors, is of doubtful utility, and should only be adopted by the sur- 
geon capable of treating the wound he has made. Enforced rest uutil 
complete recovery is effected should always be insisted on, as a too early 
return to work is sure to be followed by a relapse. 

SPRAIN OF THE FETLOCK. 

Sprain of the fetlock joint is most common in the fore legs, and as a 
rule affects but one at a time. Horses doing fast work, as trotters, 
runners, steeple chasers, hunters, cow-ponies, and those that interfere, 
are particularly liable to this injury. 

Causes. — Horses knuckling at the fetlock, and all those with diseases 
which impair the powers of locomotion, such as navicular disease, con- 
tracted heels, side bones, chronic laminitis, etc., are. predisposed to 
sprains of the fetlock. It generally happens from a misstep, stum- 
bling, or slipping, which results in the joint being extended or flexed to 
excess. The same result may happen where the foot is caught in a rut, 
hole in a bridge, or in a car track, and the animal falls or struggles 
violently. Direct blows and punctured wounds may also set up inflam- 
mation of the joint. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms of sprain of the fetlock vary with the 
severity of the injury. If slight there may be no lameness, but simply 
a little soreness, especially when the foot strikes on uneven ground, and 
the joint is twisted a little. In cases more severe the joint swells, is 
hot and puffy, and the lameness may be so intense as to compel the 
animal to hobble on three legs. While at rest the leg is flexed at the 
joint affected, and the toe rests on the ground. 

Treatment. — If the injury is slight, cold-water bandages and a few 
days' rest are sufficient to effect recovery. In cases where there is in- 
tense lameness, swelling, etc., the leg should be placed under a constant 
stream of cold water, as described in the treatment for quittor. When 
the inflammation has subsided a blister to the joint should be applied. 

In some cases, especially in old horses long accustomed to fast work, 
the ligaments of the joints are ruptured, in whole or in part, and the 
lameness may last a long time. In these cases the joint should be kept 
completely at rest ; and this condition is best secured by the applica- 
tion of the plaster of Paris bandages, as iu cases of fracture. As a rule, 
patients take kindly to this bandage, and may be given the freedom of 
a roomy box or yard while wearing it. If they are disposed to tear it 
off, or if sufficient rest can not otherwise be secured, the patient must 
be kept iu slings. 

In the majority of instances the plaster bandage should remain on 
from two to four weeks. If the lameness returns when the bandage 
is removed, a new one should be put on. The swelling, which always 
remains after the other evidences of the disease have disappeared, 



365 

may be largely dissipated and the joint strengthened by the use of the 
firing iron and blisters. 

A joint once injured by a severe sprain never entirely regains its 
original strength, and is ever after particularly liable to a repetition of 
the injury. 

RUPTURE OF THE SUSPENSORY LIGAMENT. 

Sprain, with or without rupture, of the suspensoiy ligament, may 
happen in both the fore and hind legs, and is occasionally seen in horses 
of all classes and at all ages. Old animals, however, and especially hunt- 
ers, runners, and trotters, are the most subject to this injury, and with 
these classes the seat of the trouble is nearly always in one, or both, 
the fore legs. Horses used for heavy draught are more liable to have 
the ligament of the hind legs affected. 

When the strain upon the suspensory ligament becomes too great 
one or both of the branches may be torn from their attachments to 
the sesamoid bones ; one or both of the branches may be torn com- 
pletely across ; or the ligament may rupture above the point of division. 

Symptoms. — The most common injury to the suspensory ligament is 
sprain of the internal branch in one of the fore legs. The trouble is pro- 
claimed by lameness, heat, swelling and tenderness of the affected 
branch, beginning just above the sesamoid bone and extending ob- 
liquely downward and forward to the front of the ankle. If the whole 
ligament is involved the swelling comes on gradually, and is found 
above the fetlock and in front of the flexor tendons. The patient 
stands or walks upon the toe as much as possible, keeping the fetlock 
joint flexed so as to relieve the ligament of tension. 

When both branches are torn from their attachments to the sesa- 
moids, or both are torn across, the lameness comes on suddenly and is 
most intense ; the fetlock descends, the toe turns up and, as the animal 
attempts to walk, the leg has the appearance of being broken off at the 
fetlock. These symptoms, followed by heat, pain; and swelling of the 
parts at the point of injury will enable any one to make a diagnosis. 

Treatment. — Sprain of the suspensory ligament, no matter how mild 
it may be, should always be treated by enforced rest of at least a month, 
and the application of cold douches and cold water bandages, firmly 
applied until the fever has subsided, when a cantharides blister should 
be put on and repeated in two or three weeks' time, if necessary. When 
rupture has taken place the patient should be put in slings, and a con- 
stant stream of cold water allowed to trickle over the seat of injury 
until the fever is reduced. In the course of a week or ten days' time a 
plaster of Paris splint, such as is used in fractures, is to be applied and 
left on for a month or six weeks. When this is taken off blisters may 
be used to remove the remaining soreness ; but it is useless to expect 
a removal of all the thickening, for in the process of repair new tissue 
has been formed which will always remain. 



366 

In old cases of sprain the firing iron may often be used with good re- 
sults. As a rule, severe injuries to the suspensory ligament incapaci- 
tate the subject for anything but slow, light work. 

OVERREACH. 

An overreach is where the shoe of the hind foot strikes and iujures 
the heel or quarter of the fore foot. It rarely happens except when the 
animal is going fast, hence is most common in trotting and running 
horses. In trotters the accident generally happens when the ajiimal 
breaks from a trot to a run. The outside heels and quarters are most 
liable to the injury. 

Symptoms. — The coronet at the heel or quarter is bruised or cut, the 
injury in some instauces involving the horn as well. Where the hind 
foot strikes well back on the heel of the forefoot — an accident known 
among horsemeu as "grabbing" — the shoe may be torn from the fore- 
foot or the animal may fall to his knees. Horses accustomed to over- 
reaching are often " bad breakers," for the reason that the pain of the 
injury so excites them that they can not readily be brought back to the 
trotting gait. 

Treatment. — If the injury is but a slight bruise cold water bandages 
applied for a few days will remove all of the soreness. If the parts are 
deeply cut more or less suppuration will follow, and, as a rule, it is well 
to poultice the parts for a day or two, after which cold baths may be 
used, or the wounds dressed with tincture of aloes, oakum, and a roller- 
bandage. 

When an animal is known to be subject to overreaching, he should 
never be driven fast without quarter-boots, which are specially made 
for the protection of the heels and quarters. 

If there is a disposition to " grab " the forward shoes, the trouble 
may be remedied by having the heels of these shoes made as short as 
possible, while the toe of the hind foot should project well over the hind 
shoe. When circumstances wilbpermit of their use, the forefeet may 
be shod with the tips instead of the common shoe, as described in the 
treatment for contracted heels. 

CALK WOUNDS. 

Horses wearing shoes with sharp calks are liable to wounds of the 
coronary region, either from tramping on themselves, or on each other. 
These injuries are most common in heavy draught horses, especially on 
rough roads and slippery streets. The fore feet are more liable than 
the hind ones, and the seat of injury is commonly on the quarters. In 
the hind feet the wound often results from the animal resting with the 
heel of one foot set directly over the front of the other. In these cases 
the injury is generally close to the horn, and often involves the coronary 
band, the sensitive laminae, the extensor tendon, and even the coffin 
bone. 



367 

Treatment. — Preventive measures would include the use of boots to 
protect the coronet of the hind foot, and the use of a blunt calk on the 
outside heel of the fore shoe, since this is generally the offending instru- 
ment where the fore feet are injured. If the wound is not deep and 
the soreness slight, cold-water bandages and a light protective dressing, 
such as carbolized cosmoline, will be all that is needed. Where the in- 
jury is deep, followed by inflammation and suppuration of the coronary 
band, lateral cartilages, sensitive laminae, etc., active measures must be 
resorted to. In these cases cold, astringent baths, made by adding two 
ounces of sulphate of iron to a gallon of water, should be used, followed 
by poultices if it is necessary to hasten the cleansing of the wound by 
stimulating the sloughing process. Where the wound is deep between 
the horn and skin, especially over the anterior tendon, the horn should 
be cut away so that the injured tissues may be exposed. The subse- 
quent treatment in these cases should follow the directions laid down 
in the article on toe-cracks. 

FROST BITES. 

Excepting the ears, the feet and legs are about the only parts of the 
horse liable to become frost bitten. The cases most commonly seen are 
found in cities, especially among car horses, where salt is used for the 
purpose of melting the snow on curves and switches. This mixture of 
snow and salt is splashed over the feet and legs, rapidly lowering the 
temperature of the parts to the freezing point. In mountainous dis- 
tricts where the snowfall is heavy and the cold often intense, frost bites 
are not uncommon even among animals running at large. 

Symptoms. — When the frosting is slight the skin becomes pale and 
bloodless, followed soon after by intense redness, heat, pain, and swell- 
ing. In these cases the hair may fall out and the epidermis peel off, 
but the inflammation soon subsides, the swelling disappears, and only an 
increased sensitiveness to cold remains. 

In cases more severe, irregular patches of skin are destroyed, and after 
a few days' time slough away, leaving slow-healing ulcers behind. In 
the cases produced by low temperatures and deep snow the coronary 
band is the part most often affected. 

In many instances there is no destruction of the skin, but simply a 
temporary suspension of the horn-producing function of the coronary 
band. The fore feet are more often affected than the hind ones, and 
for some reason the heels and quarters are less often involved than the 
front part of the foot. The coronary band becomes hot, swollen and 
painful, and after two or three days' time the horn separates from the 
baud and slight suppuration follows. For a few days the animal is 
lame, but as the suppuration disappears, the lameness subsides ; new 
horn, often of an inferior quality, is produced by the corouary band, 
and in time the cleft is grown off and complete recovery is effected. 



368 

The frog is occasionally frost bitten and may slough off, exposing the 
soft tissues beneath and causing severe lameness for a time. 

Treatment. — Simple frost bites are best treated by cold fomentations 
followed by applications of a 5 per cent, solution of carbolized oil. 
When portions of the skin are destroyed their early separation should 
be hastened by warm fomentations and poultices. Ulcers are to be 
treated by the application of stimulating dressings such as carbolized 
oil, a 1 per cent, solution of nitrate of silver or of chloride of zinc, witli 
pads of oakum and flannel bandages. In many of these cases recovery 
is exceedingly slow. The new tissue by which the destroyed skin is 
replaced always shrinks in healing, and as a consequence unsightly 
scars are unavoidable. Where the coronary band is involved it is gen- 
erally advisable to blister the coronet over the seat of injury as soon as 
the suppuration ceases, for the purpose of stimulating the growth of 
new horn. Where a crevasse is formed between the old and new horn, 
no serious trouble is likely to be met with until the cleft is nearly grown 
out, when the soft tissues may be exposed by a breaking off of the 
partly detached horn. 

But even where this accident happens final recovery is secured by 
poulticing the foot until a sufficient growth of horn protects the part 
from injury. 

QUITTOR. 

Quittor is a term applied to various affections of the foot wherein the 
tissues which are involved undergo a process of degeneration that re- 
sults in the formation of a slough, followed by the elimination of the 
diseased structures by means of a more or less extensive suppuration. 

For convenience of consideration quittors may be divided into four 
classes, as suggested by Girard. (1) Cutaneous quittors, which is 
known also as simple quittor, skin quittor, and carbuncle of the coronet; 
(2) tendinous quittor ; (3) subhorny quittor ; and (4) cartilaginous 
quittor. 

CUTANEOUS QUITTOR. 

Simple quittor consists in a local inflammation of the skin and of the 
subcutaneous connective tissue on some part of the coronet, followed 
by a slough and the formation of an ulcer, which heals by suppuration. 

It is an extremely painful disease, owing to the dense character of 
the tissues involved; for, in all dense structures, -the swelling, which 
accompanies inflammation, always produces intense pressure. This 
pressure not only adds to the patient's suffering, but may, at the same 
time, endanger the life of the affected parts by strangulating the blood 
vessels, which alone constitute the means whereby a nutritive supply 
is constantly maintained. It is held by some writers on the subject 
that simple quittor is most often met with in the hind feet, but in the 
author's experience more than two-thirds of the cases have developed 



369 

in the fore feet. While any part of the coronet may become the seat of 
attack, the heels and quarters ai*e undoubtedly most liable. 

Causes. — Bruises and other wounds of the coronet are often the cause 
of cutaneous quittor, yet there can be no question but that in the great 
majority of these cases the disease develops without any known cause. 
For some reason, not yet satisfactorily explained, most cases happen in 
the fall of the year. One explanation of this fact has been attempted 
in the statement that the disease is due to the injurious action of cold 
and mud. This claim, however, seems to lose force when it is remem- 
bered that in many parts of this country the most mud, accompanied 
by freezing and thawiug weather, is seen ; a the early springtime with- 
out a corresponding increase of quittor. Furthermore, the serious out- 
breaks of this disease in the mountainous regions of Colorado, Wyo- 
ming, aud Montana are seen in the fall and winter seasons, when the 
weather is the driest. It may be claimed, and perhaps with justice, 
that during these seasons, when the water is low, animals are compelled 
to wade through more mud to drink from lakes and pools than is neces- 
sary at other seasons of the year, when these lakes and pools are full. 
Add to these conditions the further fact that much of this mud is im- 
pregnated with alkaline salts, which, like the mineral substances always 
found in the mud of cities, are more or less irritating, and it seems fair 
to conclude that under certain circumstances mud may become an im- 
portant factor in the production of quittor.* 

While this disease at times attacks any and all classes of horses, it is 
the large, common breeds, with thick skins, heavy coats, and coarse 
legs that are most often affected. Horses well groomed and cared for 
in stables seem to be less liable to the disease than those running at 
large or than those which are kept and worked under adverse circum- 
stances. 

Symptoms. — Lameness, lasting from one to three or four days, nearly 
always precedes the development of the strictly local evidences of 
quittor. The next sign is the appearance of a small, tense, hot, and 
painful tumor in the skin of the coronary region. If the skin of the 
affected foot is white the inflamed portion will present a dark red or 
even a purplish appearance near the center. Within a few hours 7 time 

# A recent outbreak of quittor near Cheyenne, Wyo., which came under the author's 
observation, was caused by the mud through which the horses had to wade to reach 
the watering troughs. These troughs were furnished with water by windmills, and 
the mud-holes were caused by the waste water. More than .fifty cases developed in- 
side of two mouths' time or during September and October. Among these fifty cases 
all forms of the disease and all possible complications were presented. During the 
rainy season at Leadville, Colo., outbreaks of quittor are common, aud the disease is 
so virulent that it has long been known as the " Leadville foot-rot." The soil being 
2ich in mineral matters is no doubt the cause of the outbreaks. In the city of Mon- 
treal quittor is said to be very common in the early springtiuiej when the streets are 
±auddy from the melting of the snow and ice, 

11035 24 



370 

the ankle, or even the whole leg as high as the knee or hock, becomes 
much swollen. The lameness is now so great that the patient refuses 
to use the foot at all, but carries it in the air if compelled to move. As 
a consequence the opposite leg is required to do the work of both, and 
if the animal persists in standing a greater part of the time it, too, be- 
comes swollen. In many of these cases the suffering is so intense 
during the first few days as to cause general fever, dullness, loss of ap- 
petite, and increased thirst. Generally the tumor shows signs of sup- 
puration within from forty-eight to seventy-two hours after its first 
appearance; the summit softens, a fluctuating fluid is felt beneath the 
skin, which soon ulcerates completely through, causing the discharge 
of a thick, yellow, bloody pus, containing shreds of dead tissue which 
have sloughed away. The sore is now converted into an open ulcer, 
generally deep, nearly or quite circular in outline, and with hardened 
base and edges. In exceptional cases large patches of skin, varying 
from 1 to 2£ inches in diameter, slough away at once, leaving an ugly 
superficial ulcer. These sores, especially when deep, suppurate freely ; 
if there are no complications they tend to heal rapidly as soon as the de- 
generated tissue has softened and is entirely removed. When suppura- 
tion is fully established the lameness and general symptoms subside. 
Where but a single tumor and abscess form, the disease progresses rap- 
idly and recovery, under proper treatment, may be effected in from two 
to three weeks' time ; but when two or more tumors are developed at 
once or where the formation of one tumor is rapidly succeeded by 
another for an indefinite time the sufferings of the patient are greatly 
increased, the case is more difficult to treat, and recovery is more slow 
and less certain. 

This form of quittor is often complicated with the tendinous and sub- 
horny quittors by an extension of the sloughing process. 

Treatment. — The first step in the treatment of an outbreak of quittor 
should be the removal of all exciting causes. Crowding animals into 
small corrals and stables, where injuries to the coronet are likely to 
happen from tramping, especially among unbroken range horses, must 
be avoided as much as possible. 

Watering places, accessible without having to wade through mud, are 
to be supplied. In towns, where the mud or dust is largely impregnated 
with mineral products, it is not possible to adopt complete prophylactic 
measures. Much can be done, however, by careful cleansing of the feet 
and legs as soon as the animal returns from work. Warm water should 
be used to remove the mud and dirt, after which the parts are to be 
thoroughly dried with soft cloths. 

The means which are to be adopted for the cure of cutaneous quittor 
vary with the stage of the disease at the time the case is presented for 
treatment. If the case is seen early, that is, before any of the signs of 
suppuration have developed, the affected foot is to be placed under a 



371 

constant stream of cold water, with the object of arresting a further 
extension of the inflammatory process. To accomplish this put the 
patient in slings in a narrow stall having a slat or open floor. Bandage 
the foot and leg to the knee or hock, as the ease may be, with flannel 
bandages loosely applied. Set a tub or barrel filled with cold water 
above the patient and by the use of a small rubber hose of sufficient 
length make a siphon which will carry the water from the bottom of 
the tub to the leg at the top of the bandages. The stream of water 
should be quite small, and it is to be continued until the inflammation 
has entirely subsided or until the presence of pus can be detected in 
the tumor. When suppuration has commenced the process should be 
aided by the use of warm baths and poultices of linseed meal or boiled 
turnips. If the tumor is of rapid growth, accompanied by intense pain, 
relief is secured and sloughing largely limited by a free incision of the 
parts. The incision should be vertical and deep into the tumor, care 
being taken not to entirely divide the coronary band. If the tumor is 
large more than one incision may be necessary. 

The foot should now be placed in a warm bath for half an hour or 
longer and then poulticed. The hemorrhage produced by the cutting 
and encouraged by the warm bath is generally very copious and soon, 
gives relief to the ever tension of the parts. 

In other cases it will be found that suppuration is well under way, so 
that the center of the tumor is soft when the patient is first presented 
for treatment. It is always good surgery to relieve pus whenever its 
presence can be detected ; hence in these cases a free incision must be 
made into the softened parts, the pus evacuated and the foot poulticed. 

By surgical interference the tumor is now converted into an open 
sore or ulcer, which, after it has been well cleaned by warm baths and 
poultices applied for two or three days, needs to be protected by proper 
dressings. The best of all protective dressings is made of small balls 
or pledgets of oakum, carefully packed into the wound and held in 
place by a roller bandage 4 yards long, from 3 to 4 inches wide, made 
of common bedticking and skillfully applied. The remedies which may 
be used to stimulate the healing process are many, and as a rule they 
are applied in the form of solution or tinctures. 

In my own practice I prefer a solutiou of bichloride of mercury 1 
part, water 500 parts, with a few drops of muriatic acid or a few grains 
of muriate of ammonia added to cause the mercury to dissolve. The 
balls of oakum are wet with this solution before they are applied to the 
wound. 

Among the other remedies which may be used, and perhaps with 
equally as good results, will be noted the sulphate of copper, iron, and 
zinc, 5 grains of either to the ounce of water ; chloride of zinc, 5 grains 
to the ounce ; carbolic acid, 20 drops dissolved in an equal amount of 
glycerine and added to one ounce of water, and the nitrate of silver, 10 
grains to the ounce of water. 



372 

If the wound is slow to heal it will be found of advantage to change 
the remedies used every few days, for after a time a remedy seems to 
lose its stimulating effect upon the slow-growing granulations. 

If the wound is pale in color, the granulations transparent and glis- 
tening, the tincture of aloes, tincture of gentian, or the spirits of cam- 
phor may do best. 

When the sore is red in color and healing rapidly an ointment made 
of 1 part of carbolic acid to 40 parts of cosmoline or vaseline is all that 
is needed. 

If the granulations continue to grow until a tumor is formed, which 
projects beyond the surrounding skin, it should be cut off with a sharp, 
clean knife, the foot poulticed for twenty-four hours, after which the 
wound is to be well cauterized daily with lunar caustic and the baud- 
ages applied with great firmness. 

The question as to how often the dressings should be renewed must 
be determined by the condition of the wound, etc. If the sore is sup- 
purating freely it will be necessary to renew the dressing every twenty- 
four or forty-eight hours. If the discharge is small in quantity and the 
patient comfortable the dressing may be left on for several days ; in 
fact, the less often the wound is disturbed the better, in so long as the 
healing process is healthy. When the sore commences to skin over the 
edges should be lightly touched with the luuar caustic at each dressing. 
The patient may now be given a little exercise daily, but the bandages 
must be kept on until the wound is entirely healed. 

TENDINOUS QUITTOR. 

This form of quittor differs from the cutaneous in that it not only 
affects the skin and subcutaneous tissues, but involves, also, the ten- 
dons of the leg, the ligaments of the joints, and, in many cases, the bones 
of the foot as well. 

Fortunately this form of quittor is less common than the preceding; 
yet any case beginning as simple cutaneous quittor may, at any time 
during its course, become complicated by the death of some part of the 
tendons by gangrene of the ligaments, sloughing of the coronary band, 
caries of the bones, or inflammation accompanied by suppuration of 
the synovial sacs and joints, thereby converting a simple quittor iuto 
one which will, iu all probability, either destroy the patient's life or 
maim him for all time. 

Causes. — Tendinous quittor is caused by the same injuries and in- 
fluences that produce the simple form. Zundel believes it to be a not 
infrequent accompaniment of distemper. In my own experience I have 
seen nothing to verify this belief, but I am satisfied that young animals 
are more liable to have tendinous quittor than older ones, and that they 
are much more likely to make a good recovery. 

Symptoms. — When a case of simple quittor is transformed into the 
tendinous variety the development of the complications is announced 



373 

"by a sudden increase in the severity of all of the symptoms. On the 
other hand, if the attack primarily is one of tendinous quittor, the 
earliest symptom seen is a well-marked lameness in the affected leg. 
In those cases due to causes other than injuries this lameness is at first 
very slight, and the animal limps no more in trotting than in walking; 
but later on, generally during the next forty-eight hours, the lameness 
increases to such an extent that the patient often refuses to use the leg 
at all. An examination made during the first two days rarely discloses 
any cause for this lameness ; it may not be possible even to say, with 
certainty, that the foot is the seat of the trouble. On the third or 
fourth day, sometimes so late as the fifth, a doughy-feeling tumor will 
be found forming on the heel or quarter. This tumor grows rapidly, 
feels hot to the touch, and is extremely painful. As the tumor devel- 
ops all the other symptoms increase in iutensity ; the pulse is rapid 
and hard, the breathing quick, the temperature elevated three or four 
degrees, the appetite is gone, thirst is increased, and the lameness is so 
great that the foot is carried in the air if locomotion is attempted. At 
this stage of the disease the patient generally seeks relief by lying 
upon the broad side, with outstretched legs, the coat bedewed with a 
clammy sweat, while every respiration is accompanied by a moan. The 
leg soon swells to the fetlock ; later this swelling gradually extends as 
as high as to the knee or hock, and in some cases it even reaches the 
body. As a rule several days elapse before the disease develops a well 
defined abscess, for, owing to the dense structure of the bones, liga- 
ments and tendons, the suppurative process is a slow one, and the pus 
when formed is prevented from readily collecting in a mass. 

Recently I made a post mortem examination on a typical case of this 
disease, where the animal had died on the fourth day after being found 
on the range slightly lame. The suffering had been intense; yet the 
only external evidences of the disease consisted in the shedding of the 
hoof from the right fore foot, and a limited swelling of the leg to the 
knee. The sloughing of the hoof took place two or three hours before 
death, and was accompanied with but little suppuration and no hemor- 
rhage. The skin, from the knee to the foot, was thickened from watery 
infiltration (oedema), and on the inside quarter three holes, each about 
one-half of an inch in diameter, were found. All had ragged edges, 
while but one had gone deep enough to perforate the coronary band. 
The loose connective tissue, found beneath the skin, was distended with 
a gelatinous infiltration, over the whole course of the flexor tendons, 
and to the fetlock joint over the tendon in front. The soft tissues 
covering the coffin bone were loosened in patches by collections of pus 
which had formed beneath the sensitive laminae. The coffin and pastern 
joints were both inflamed, as were also the coffin, navicular and coronet 
bones, while the outside toe of the coffin bone had become softened 
from suppuration, until it could readily be crumbled between the fin- 
gers. The coronary band was largely destroyed and completely sepa« 



374 

rated from the other tissues of the foot; the inner lateral cartilage was 
gangrenous, as was also a small spot on the extensor tendon, near its 
point of attachment on the coffin bone. Several small collections of 
pus were found deep in the connective tissue of the coronary region ; 
along the course of the sesamoid ligaments ; in the sheath of the flexor 
tendons ; under the tendon just below the fetlock joint in front, and in 
the coffin joint. 

But all cases of tendinous quittor are by no means so complicated as 
this one was. In rare instances the swelling is slight, and, after a few 
days' time the lameness and other symptoms subside without any dis- 
charge of pus from an external opening. In most cases, however, from 
one to half a dozen or more soft points arise on the skin of the coronet, 
open, and discharge slowly a thick, yellow, fetid, and bloody matter. 
In other cases the suppurative process is largely confined to the sensi- 
tive laminae and plantar cushion ; in these cases the suffering is intense 
until the pus finds an avenue of escape, which it generally does by 
separating the hoof from the coronary band, at or near the heels, with- 
out causing a loss of the whole horny box. When the flexor tendon is 
involved deep in the foot, the discharge of pus usually takes place from 
an opening in the hollow of the heel ; if the sesamoid ligament, or the 
sheath of the flexors, are affected, the opening is nearer the fetlock 
joint ; although in most of these cases the suppuration spreads along 
the course of the tendons until the navicular joint is involved, and ex- 
tensive sloughing of the deeper parts follows. 

Treatment. — The treatment of tendinous quittor is to be directed to- 
ward the saving of the foot. First of all, an effort must be made to 
prevent suppuration ; and if the patient is seen at the beginning, the 
cold irrigation, recommended in the treatment for cutaneous quittor, is 
to be resorted to. Later on, when the tumor is forming on the coronet, 
the knife must be used, and a free and deep incision made into the 
swelling. Whenever openings appear from which the pus escapes they 
should be carefully probed ; in all instances these fistulous tracts will 
be found leading down to dead tissue which nature is trying to remove 
by the process of sloughing. If a counter opening can be made, which 
will enable a more ready escape of the pus, it should be done at once; 
for instance, if the probe shows that the discharge originates from the 
bottom of the foot the sole must be pared through, over the seat of 
trouble. Whenever suppuration has commenced, the process is to be 
stimulated by the use of warm baths and poultices. The pus which ac- 
cumulates in the deeper parts, especially along the tendons, around the 
joints and in the hoof, is to be removed by pressure and injections, made 
with a small syringe and repeated two or three times a day. As soon 
as the discharge assumes a healthy character and diminishes in quan- 
tity, stimulating solutions are to be injected into the open wounds. 
Where the tendons, ligaments, and other deeper parts are affected, a 



375 

strong solution of carbolic acid — 1 to 4 — should be used at first. Or, 
strong solutions of tincture of iodine, sulphate of iron, sulphate of cop- 
per, bichloride of mercury, etc., may be used in place of the carbolic; 
after which the remedies and dressings, directed for use in simple quit- 
tor, are to be used. In those cases where the fistulous tracts refuse to 
heal, it is often necessary to burn them out with a saturated solution 
of caustic soda, equal parts of muriatic acid and water, or, better still, 
with along, thin iron, heated white hot. 

But no matter what treatment is adopted, a large percentage of the 
cases of tendinous quittor fail to make good recoveries. Where the 
entire hoof sloughs away, the growth of a new, but soft and imperfect, 
hoof may be secured by carefully protecting the soft and exposed tis- 
sues with proper bandages. When the joints are opened by deep 
sloughing, recovery may eventually take place, but the joint remains 
immovable ever after. If caries of a small part of the coffin bone takes 
place, it may be removed by an operation ; but if much of the bone is 
affected, or if the navicular and coronet bones are involved in the cari- 
ous process, the only hope for a cure is in the amputation of the foot. 
Of course, this operation would only be advisable where the animal was 
valuable for breeding purposes. In all other cases where there is no 
hope for recovery the patient's suffering should be relieved by death. 
In tendinous quittor much thickening of the coronary region, and some- 
times of the ankle and fetlock, remains after suppuration has ceased 
and the fistulous tracts have healed. To stimulate the reabsorption of 
this new and unnecessary tissue the parts should be fired with the hot 
iron ; or, in its absence, repeated blistering, with the biuiodide of mer- 
cury ointment, may largely accomplish the same result. 

SUBHORNY QUITTOR. 

This is the most common form of the disease. It is generally seen in but 
one foot at a time, and more often in the fore feet than in the hind ones. 
It nearly always attacks the inside quarter, but may affect the outside 
quarter, the toe or the heel, where it is but of little consequence. It 
consists in the inflammation of a small part of the coronary band and 
adjacent skin, followed by sloughing and more or less suppuration, 
which in most cases extends to the neighboring sensitive laminae. 

Causes. — Injuries to the coronet, such as bruises, overreaching, and 
calk wounds, are considered as the common causes of this disease. 
Still, cases occur in which there appears to be no exciting cause, just as 
in the other forms of quittor, and it seems fair to conclude that sub- 
homy quittor may also be produced by internal causes. 

Symptoms. — At the outset the lameness is always severe, and the 
patient often refuses to use the affected foot. Swelling of the cor- 
onet takes place close to the top of the hoof, causing the quarter 
to protrude beyond the wall of the foot. This tumor is extremely 



376 

sensitive, and the whole foot is hot and painful. After a few days* 
time a small spot in the skin, over the most elevated part of the 
tumor, softens and opeus, or else the hoof separates from the coronary 
band at the quarter or well back toward the heel. From this opening, 
wherever it may be, a thin, watery, offensive discharge escapes, often 
dark in color, at times mixed with blood, and always containing a con- 
siderable percentage of pus. 

Probing will now disclose a fistulous tract leading to the bottom of 
the diseased tissues. If the opening is small there is a tendency upon 
the part of the suppurative process to spread downward ; the pus grad- 
ually separating the hoof from the sensitive laminae until the sole is 
reached, and even a portion of this may also be undermined. 

As a rule, the slough in this form of quittor is not deep, so that if the 
case receives early and proper treatment complications are generally 
avoided, but if the case is neglected, and, occasionally, even in spite of 
the best of treatment, the disease spreads until the tendon in front, the 
lateral cartilage, or the coffin bone and joint as well, are involved. 

In all cases of subhorny quittor much relief is experienced as soon 
as the slough has come away, and rapid progress toward recovery is 
made. If, however, after the lapse of a few days' time, the lameness 
still remains and the wound continues to discharge a thin unhealthy 
matter, the probabilities are that the disease is spreading, aud that pus 
is collecting in the deeper parts of the foot. In Zuudel's opinion, if the 
use of the probe now detects a pus cavity below the opening, a car- 
tilaginous quittor is in the course of development. 

Treatment. — Hot baths and poultices are to be used until the presence 
of pus can be determined, when the tumor is to be opened with a knife 
or sharp-pointed iron heated white hot. The hot baths and poultices 
are now continued for a few days, or until the entire slough has come 
away and the discharge is diminished, when the dressings recommended 
in the treatment for cutaneous quittor are to be used until recovery is 
completed. In cases where the discharge comes from a cleft between 
the upper border of the hoof and the coronary band, always pare away 
the loosened horn, so that the soft tissues beneath are fully exposed, 
care being taken not to injure the healthy parts. This operation per- 
mits of a thorough inspection of the diseased parts, the easy removal 
of all gangrenous tissue, aud a better application of the necessary rem- 
edies and dressings. The only objection to the operation is that the 
patient is prevented from being early returned to work. 

When the probe shows that pus has collected under the coffin bone, 
the sole must be pared through, and if caries of the bone is present, 
the dead parts must be cut away. After either of these operations the 
wound is to be dressed with the oakum balls saturated in the bi- 
chloride of mercury solution, as previously directed, aud the bandages 
tightly applied. Generally the discharge for the first two or three days 
is so great that the dressings need to be changed every twenty-four 



377 

hours; but when the discharge diminishes, the dressing maybe left on 
from one to two weeks. Before the patient is returned to work, a bar 
shoe should be applied, since the removed quarter or heel can only be 
made perfect again by a new growth from the coronary band. 

Tendinous or cartilaginous complications are to be treated as directed 
under these headings. 

CARTILAGINOUS QUITTOR. 

This form of quittor may commence as a primary inflammation of the 
lateral cartilage, but in the great majority of cases it appears as a se- 
quel to cutaneous or sub-horny quittor. It may affect either the fore 
or hind feet, but is most commonly seen in the former. As a rule, it 
attacks but one foot at a time, and but one of the cartilages, and that 
is generally the inner one. It is always a serious affection for the rea- 
son that, in many cases, it can only be cured by a surgical operation, 
requiring a thorough knowledge of the anatomy of the parts involved 
and much surgical skill.- 

Causes. — Direct injuries to the coronet, such as tramping, pricks, 
burns, and the blow of some heavy falling object which may puncture, 
bruise, or crush the cartilage, are the common direct causes of cartilag- 
inous quittor. Besides being a sequel to the other forms of quittor, it 
sometimes develops as a complication in suppurative corn, canker, 
grease, laminitis, and punctured wounds of the foot. Animals used for 
heavy draught, and those with flat feet and low heels, are more liable 
to the disease than others, for the simple reason that they are more ex- 
posed to injury. Rough roads also predispose to the disease by in- 
creasing liability to injury. 

Symptoms. — When the disease commences as a primary inflammation 
of the cartilage, lameness develops with the formation of a swelling on 
the side of the coronet over the quarter. The severity of this lameness 
depends largely upon the part of the cartilage which is diseased ; if the 
disease is situated in that part of the cartilage nearest the heel, where 
the surrounding tissues are soft and spongy, the lameness may be very 
slight, especially if the patient is required to go no faster than a walk; 
but when the middle and anterior parts of the cartilage are diseased 
the pain and consequent lameness are much greater, for the tissues are 
less elastic and the coffin joint is more likely to become affected. 

Except in the cases to be noted hereafter, one or more fistulous open- 
ings finally appear in the tumor on the coronet. These openings are 
surrounded by a small mass of granulations, which are elevated above 
the adjacent skin and bleed readily if handled. A probe shows these 
fistulous tracts to be more or less sinuous, but always leading to one 
point — the gangrenous cartilage. When cartilaginous quittor happens 
as a complication of suppurative corn, or from puuctured wounds of the 
foot, the fistulous tract may open alone at the point of injury on the 
sole. 



378 

The discharge in this form of quittor is generally thin, watery, and con- 
tains enough pus to give it a pale yellow color ; it is offensive to the sense 
of smell, due to the detachment of small flakes of the cartilage which 
have become gangrenous and are are to be seen in the discharge in the 
form of small greenish-colored particles. In old cases it is not unusual 
to find some of the fistulous openings heal at the surface; this is fol- 
lowed by the gradual collection of pus in the deeper parts, forming an 
abscess, which in a short time opens at a uew point. The wall of the 
hoof, over the affected quarter and heel, in very old cases, becomes 
rough and wrinkled like the horn of a ram ; and generally it is thicker 
than the corresponding quarter, owing to the stimulating effect which 
the disease has upon the coronary band. 

Complications may arise by an extension of the disease to the lateral 
ligament of the coffin joint, to the joint itself, to the plantar cushion, 
and by caries of the coffin bone. 

Treatment. — Before recovery can take place in these cases all of the 
dead cartilage must be removed. In rare instances this is effected by 
nature without assistance. Usually, however, the disease does not tend 
to recovery, and active curative measures must be adopted. The best 
and simplest treatment in a majority of cases is the injection of strong 
caustic solutions, which are intended to destroy the diseased cartilage, 
and to cause its removal, along with the other products of suppuration. 
In favorable cases these injections will secure a healing of the wound 
in from two to three week's time. While the saturated solution of the 
sulphate of copper, or a solution of 10 parts of bi-chloride of mercury to 
100 parts of water, has given the best results in my hands, equally as 
favorable success has been secured by others from the use of caustic 
soda, nitrate of silver, sulphate of zinc, tincture of iodine, etc. But no 
matter which one of these remedies may be selected, it must be used at 
least twice a day for a time. The solution is to be injected into the 
various openings with enough force to drive it to the bottom of the 
wound, after which the foot is to be dressed with a pad of oakum, held 
in place by a roller bandage tightly applied. While it is not always 
necessary, in many cases it is of advantage to relieve the pressure on 
the parts by rasping away the horn over the seat of the cartilage; the 
coronary band and the lamina3 should not be injured in the operation. 

If the caustic injections prove successful, the discharge will become 
healthy and gradually diminish, so that by the end of the second week 
it will be found that the fistulous tracts are closing up, and that the 
injections are made with much difficulty. 

If, on the other hand, there is but little or no improvement after this 
treatment has been used for three weeks, it may reasonably be con- 
cluded that the operation for the removal of the lateral cartilage must 
be resorted to for the cure of the trouble. As this operation can be 
safely undertaken only by an expert surgeon, it will not be described in 
this connection. 



379 



THRUSH. 



Thrash is a disease characterized by au excessive secretion of un- 
healthy matter from the cleft of the frog. While all classes of horses 
are liable to this affection, it is more often seen in the common draft 
horse than in any other breed, a fact due to the conditions of servitude 
and not to the fault of the breed. Country horses are much less sub- 
ject to the disease, except in wet, marshy districts, than are the horses 
used in cities and towns. 

Causes. — The most common cause of thrush is the filthy condition of 
the stable in which the animal is kept. Mares are more liable to contract 
the disease in the hind feet when the cause is due to filth, while the geld- 
ing and stallion are more likely to develop it in the fore feet. Hard 
work, on rough and stony roads, may also induce the disease, as may a 
change from dryness to excessive moisture. The latter cause is often 
seen to operate in old track horses, whose feet are constantly soaked in 
the bath-tub for the purpose of relieving soreness. Muddy streets and 
roads, especially where mineral substances are plentiful, excite this 
abnormal condition of the frog. Contracted heels, scratches, and navic- 
ular disease predispose to thrush, while by some a constitutional tend- 
ency is believed to exist among certain animals which otherwise pre- 
sent a perfect frog. 

Symptoms. — At first there is simply an increased moisture in the cleft 
of the frog, accompanied by an offensive smell. After a time a consider- 
able discharge takes place — thin, watery, and highly offensive — chang- 
ing gradually to a thicker puriform matter, which rapidly destroys the 
horn of the frog. Only in old and severe cases is the patient lame and 
the foot feverish, — cases in which the whole frog is involved in the dis- 
eased process. 

Treatment. — Thrushes are to be treated by cleanliness, the removal 
of all exciting causes, and a return of the frog to its normal condition. 
As a rule, the diseased and ragged portions of horn are to be pared 
away, and the foot poulticed for a day or two with boiled turnips, to 
which may be added a few drops of carbolic acid or a handful of pow- 
dered charcoal to destroy the offensive smell. The cleft of the frog and 
the grooves on the edges are then to be cleaned and well filled with dry 
calomel, and the foot dressed with oakum and a roller bandage. If the 
discharge is profuse the dressing should be changed daily, otherwise it 
may be left on for two or three days at a time. Where a constitutional 
taint is supposed to exist with swelling of the legs, grease, etc., a pur- 
gative followed by dram doses of sulphate of iron, repeated daily, may 
be prescribed. Iu cases where the growth of horn seems too slow, a 
Spanish fly blister applied to the heels is often followed by good re- 
sults. Feet in which the disease is readily induced may be protected 
in the stable with a leather boot. If the thrush is but a sequel to other 
diseases a permanent cure may not be possible. 



380 



CANKER. 

Canker of the foot is a disease due to the rapid reproduction of a 
vegetable parasite. It not only destroys the sole and frog, but by set- 
ting up a chronic inflammation in the deeper tissues, prevents the 
growth of a healthy horn by which the injury might be repaired. 
Heavy cart horses are more often affected than those of any other class. 

Causes. — The essential element in the production of cankers is of 
course the presence of the parasite; consequently the disease may be 
called contagious. But, as in all other diseases due to specific causes, 
the seeds of the disorder must find a suitable soil in which to grow be- 
fore they are reproduced. It may be said, then, that the conditions 
which favor the preparation of the tissues for a reception of the seeds 
of this disease are simply predisposing causes. 

The condition most favorable to the development of cankers is damp- 
ness — in fact, dampness seems indispensable to the existence and growth 
of the parasite ; for the disease is rarely, if ever, seen in high, dry dis- 
tricts, and is much more common in rainy than in dry seasons. Filthy 
stables and muddy roads have been classed among the causes of canker ; 
but it is very doubtful if these conditions can do more than favor a 
preparation of the foot for the reception of the disease germ. 

All injuries to the feet may, by exposing the soft tissues, render the 
animal susceptible to infection ; but neither the injury nor the irritation 
and inflammation of the tissues which follow, are sufficient to induce the 
disease. 

For some unknown reason horses with lymphatic temperaments, 
thick skins, flat feet, fleshy frogs, heavy hair, and particularly with 
white feet and legs, are especially liable to canker. 

Symptoms. — Usually, canker is confined to one foot; but it may attack 
two, three, or all of the feet at once ; or, as is more commonly seen, the 
disease attacks first one then another, until all may have been succes- 
sively affected. When the disease follows an injury which has exposed 
the soft tissues of the foot the wound shows no tendency to heal, but, 
instead, there is secreted from the inflamed parts a profuse, thin, fetid, 
watery discharge, which gradually undermines and destroys the sur- 
rounding horn, until eventually a large part of the sole and frog is dis- 
eased. The living tissues are swollen, dark-colored, and covered at cer- 
tain points with particles of new, soft, yellowish, thready horn, which 
are constantly undergoing maceration in the abundant liquid secretion 
by which they are immersed. As this secretion escapes to the sur- 
rounding parts it dries and forms small cheesy masses composed of the 
partly dried horny matter, exceedingly offensive to the sense of smell. 
When the disease originates independently of an injury, the first evi- 
dences of the trouble are the offensive odor of the foot, the liquid secre- 
tion from the cleft and sides of the frog, and the rotting away of the 
horn of the frog and sole. 



381 

Iu the earlier stages of the disease there is uo interference with locol 
motion, bnt later the foot becomes sensitive, particularly if the anima- 
ls used on rough roads, and, finally, when the sole and frog are largely 
destroyed the lameness is severe. 

Treatment. — Siuce canker does not destroy the power of the tissues 
to produce horn, but rather excites them to an excessive production of 
an imperfect horn, the indications for treatment are to restore the parts 
to a normal condition when healthy horn may again be secreted. In 
my experience, limited though it has been, the old practice of stripping 
off the entire sole and deep cauterization, with either the hot iron or 
strong acids, is not attended with uniformly good results. 

I am of the opinion that recovery can generally be effected as surely 
and as speedily with measures which are less heroic and much less 
painful. True, the treatment of canker is likely to exhaust the patience, 
and sometimes the resources, of the attendant; but after all success 
depends more on the persistent application of simple remedies and great 
cleanliness than on the special virtues of any particular drug. 

First, then, clean the foot with warm baths, and apply a poultice 
containing powdered charcoal or carbolic acid. A handful of the char- 
coal, or a tablespoonful of the acid, mixed with the poultice serves to 
destroy much of the offensive odor. The diseased portions of horn are 
now to be carefully removed with sharp instruments, until only healthy 
horn borders the affected parts. The edges of the sound horn are to 
be pared thin, so that the swollen soft tissues may not overlap their 
borders. With sharp scissors cut off all the prominent points on the 
soft tissues, shorten the walls of the foot, and nail on a broad, plain 
shoe. The foot is now ready for the dressings, and any of the many 
stimulating and drying remedies may be used. Whichever is selected 
at the outset, it will be necessary to change frequently from one to 
another, until Anally all may be tried. 

The list from which a selection may be made comprises wood tar, 
gas tar, petroleum, creosote, phenic acid, sulphates of iron, copper and 
zinc, chloride of zinc, bichloride of mercury, calomel, caustic soda, 
nitrate of silver, chloride of lime, carbolic, nitric, and sulphuric acids. 

In practice I prefer to give the newly shod foot a bath for an hour or 
two in a solution of the sulphate of iron, made by addiog 2 ounces of the 
powdered sulphate to a gallon of cold water. When the foot is removed 
it is dressed with oakum balls, dipped in a mixture made of Barbadoes 
tar, 1 part ; oil of turpentine, 8 parts, to which are slowly added 2 parts 
of sulphuric acid, and the mixture well stirred and cooled. The diseased 
parts being well covered with the balls, a pad of oakum, sufficiently 
thick to cause considerable pressure, is placed over them, and all are 
held in place by pieces of heavy tin fitted to slip under the shoe. The 
whole foot is now encased in a boot or folded guuny sack, and the patient 
turned into a loose, dry box. The dressings are to be changed daily, oi 
even twice a day, at first. When they are removed all pieces of new 



382 

horny matter, which are not firmly adherent must be rubbed off with 
the finger or a tent of oakum. As the secretion diminishes dry powders 
may prove of most advantage, such as calomel, sulphates of iron, 
copper, etc. The sulphates should not be used pure, but are to be mixed 
with powdered animal charcoal in the proportion of one of the former to 
eight or ten of the latter. When the soft tissues are all horned over the 
dressings should be continued .for a time, weak solutions being used to 
prevent a recurrence of the disease. If the patient is run down in con- 
dition, bitter tonics, such as gentian, may be given in 2-dram doses, 
twice a day, and a liberal diet of grain allowed. 

CORNS 

A corn is an injury to the living horn of the foot, involving at the 
same time the soft tissues beneath, whereby the capillary blood vessels 
are ruptured and a small amount of blood escapes, which, by permeat- 
ing the horn in the immediate neighborhood, stains it a dark color. If 
the injury is continuously repeated the horn becomes altered in char- 
acter, the soft tissues may suppurate, causing the disease to spread, or 
a horny tumor may develop. Corns always appear in that part of the 
sole included in the angle between the bar and the outside wall of the 
hoof. In many cases the laminae of the bar, of the wall, or of both, are 
involved at the same time. 

Three kiuds of corns are commonly recognized — the dry, the moist, 
and the suppurative, a division based solely on the character of the 
conditions which follow the primary injury. 

The forefeet are almost exclusively the subjects of the disease, for two 
reasons: First, because they support a greater part of the body; sec- 
ondly, because the heel of the fore foot during progression is first placed 
upon the ground, whereby it receives much more concussion than the 
heel of the hind foot, in which the toe first strikes the ground. 

Causes. — It may be said that all feet are exposed to corns, and that 
even the best feet may suffer from them when the conditions necessary 
to the production of the peculiar injury are present. The heavier 
breeds of horses generally used for heavy work on rough roads and 
streets seem to be most liable to this trouble. Mules rarely have corns. 

Among the causes and conditions which predispose to corns may be 
named high heels, which change the natural relative position of the bones 
of the foot and thereby increase the concussion to which these parts are 
subject ; contracted heels, which in part destroy the elasticity ot the foot, 
increase the pressure upon the soft tissues of the heel, and render lacer- 
ations more easy; long feet, which, by removing the frog and heels too 
far from the ground, deprive them of necessary moisture, which in turn 
reduces the elastic properties of the horn and diminishes the transverse 
diameter of the heels ; weak feet, or those in which the horn of the wall 
is too thin to resist the tendency to spread, and as a result the soft tis- 
sues are easily lacerated, Wide feet with low heels are always aocom- 



383 

panied by a flat sole whose posterior wings either rest upon the ground 
or the shoe, and as a consequence are easily bruised; at the same time 
the arch of the sole is so broad and flat that it cau not support the 
weight of the body, and in the displacement which happens when the 
foot is rested upon the ground the soft tissues are liable to become 
bruised or torn. 

It is universally conceded that shoeing of the foot, either as a direct 
or predisposing cause, is most prolific in producing corns. One of the 
most serious as well as the most common of the errors in shoeing is to 
be found in the preparation of the foot for the shoe. Instead of seeking 
to maintain the integrity of the arch the first thing done is to weaken 
it by freely paring away the sole; nor does the mutilation end here, for 
the frog, which is nature's main support to the branches of the sole and 
the heels, is also largely cut away. This not only permits of an excessive 
downward movement of the contents of the horny box, but it at the 
same time removes the one great means by which concussion of the foot 
is destroyed. As adjuncts to the foregoing errors must be added the 
faults in the construction of the shoe and in the way it is adjusted to 
the foot. An excess of concavity in the shoe, by extending it too far 
back on the heels, high calks, thin heels which permit the shoe to 
spring, short heels with a calk set under the foot, and a shoe too light 
for the animal wearing it or for the work required of him, are all to be 
avoided as causes of corns. A shoe so set as to press upon the sole, or 
one that has been on so long that the hoof has overgrown it until the 
heels rest upon the sole and bars, becomes a direct cause of corns. In- 
directly the shoe becomes the cause of corns when small stones, hard 
dry earth, or other objects collect between the sole and shoe. Lastly, 
a rapid gait and excessive knee action, especially on hard roads, predis- 
pose to this disease of the feet. 

Symptoms. — Ordinarily a corn induces sufficient pain to cause lame- 
ness. It may be intense, as seen in suppurative corn, or it may be but 
a slight soreness, such as that which accompanies dry corn. It is by no 
means unusual to see old horses having chronic corns apparently so 
accustomed to the slight pain which they suffer as not to limp at all ; 
but these animals are generally very restless ; they paw their bedding 
behind them at night, and in many instances they refuse to lie down 
for any lengthened rest. The lameness of this disease, however, can 
hardly be said to be characteristic, for the reason that it varies so 
greatly in intensity ; but the position of the leg while the patient is at 
rest is generally the same in all cases. The foot is so advanced that it is 
relieved of all weight and the fetlock is flexed until all pressure by the 
contents of the hoof is removed from the heels. In suppurative corn the 
lameness subsides or entirely disappears as soon as the abscess has 
opened. When the injured tissues are much inflamed, as may happen 
in severe and recent cases, the heel of the affected side, or even the whole 
foot, is hot and tender to pressure. In dry corn, and in most chronie 



384 

cases, all evidences of local fever are often wanting. It is in these cases 
that the patient goes well when newly shod, for the smith cuts away the 
sole over the seat of injury until all pressure by the shoe is removed, and 
lowers the heels so that concussion is reduced to a minimum. If a corn 
is suspected the foot should be examined for increased sensibility of 
the inside heel. Tapping the heel of the shoe with a hammer and 
grasping the wall and bar between the jaws of a pincers, with mod- 
erate pressure, will cause more or less flinching if the disease is pres- 
ent. For further evidence the shoe is removed and the heel cut away 
with the drawing knife. As the horn is pared out not only the sole 
in the angle is found discolored, but, in many instances, this insensible 
laminae of the bar and wall adjacent are also stained with the escaped 
blood. In moist and suppurative corns this discoloration is less marked 
than in dry corn and may even be entirely wanting. In these cases the 
horn is soft, often white, and stringy or mealy, as seen in pumiced 
sole resulting from founder. When the whole thickness of the sole is 
discolored and the horn dry and brittle it is generally evidence that 
the corn is an old one and that the exciting cause has existed contin- 
uously. A moist corn differs from the dry corn in that the injury is 
more severe, the parts affected are more or less inflamed, and the horn 
of the sole in the angle is undermined by a citron-colored fluid, which 
often permeates the injured sole and laminae, causing the horn to be- 
come somewhat spongy. 

A suppurative corn differs from the others in that the inflammation 
accompanying the injury ends in suppuration. The pus collects at the 
point of injury and finally escapes by working a passage way between 
the sensitive and insensible laininse to the top of the hoof, where an 
opening is made by separation of the wall from the coronary baud at 
or near the heels. This is the most serious form of corns, for the reason 
that it may induce gangrene of the plantar cushion, cartilaginous quit- 
tor, or caries of the coffin bone. 

Treatment. — Since a diversity of opinion exists as to what measures 
must be adopted for the radical cure of corns, the author will advise 
the use of those which have proven most efficient in his hands. 

As in all other troubles, the cause must be discovered, if possible, and 
removed. In the great majority of cases the shoeing will be at fault. 
While sudden chauges in the method of shoeing are not advisable, it 
may be said that all errors, either in the preparation of the foot, in the 
construction of the shoe, or in its application, may very properly be 
corrected at any time. Circumstances may, at times, make it impera- 
tive that shoes shall be worn which are not free from objections, as, for 
instance, the shoe with a high calk ; but in such cases it is considered 
that the injuries liable to result from the use of calks are less serious 
than those which are sure to happen for the want of them. 

For a sound foot, perfectly formed, a flat shoe, with heels less thick 
than the toe, and which rests evenly on the wall proper, is the best. 



385 

In flat feet it is often necessary to concave the shoe as much as possi- 
ble on the upper surface, so that the sole may not be pressed upon. If 
the heels are very low the heels of the shoe may be made thicker. If 
the foot is very broad and the wall light toward the heels, a bar shoe, 
resting upon the frog, will aid to prevent excessive tension upon the 
soft tissues when the foot receives the weight of the body. A piece of 
leather placed between the foot and the shoe serves to largely destroy 
concussion, and its use is absolutely necessary on some animals in that 
they may be kept at work. 

Lastly, among the preventive measures, may be mentioned those 
which serve to maintain the suppleness of the hoof. The dead horn 
upon the surface of the sole not only retains moisture for a long time, 
but protects the living horn beneath from the effects of evaporation, 
and for this reason the sole should be pared as little as possible. Stuf- 
fing the feet with flaxseed meal, wet clay, or other like substances ; 
damp dirt floors or damp bedding of tan-bark, greasy hoof ointments, 
etc., are all means which may be used to keep the feet from becoming 
too dry and hard. 

As to the curative measures which are to be adopted much will de- 
pend upon the extent of the injury. If the case is one of chronic dry 
corn, with but slight lameness, the foot should be poulticed for a day 
or two and the discolored horn pared out, care being taken not to injure 
the soft tissues. The heel on the affected side is to be lowered until all 
pressure is removed, and, if the patient's labor is required, the foot must 
be shod with a bar shoe or with one having stiff heels. Care must be 
taken to reset the shoe before the foot has grown too long, else the shoe 
will no longer rest on the wall but on the sole and bar. 

In moist corns we believe in cutting them out. If there is inflamma- 
tion present, cold baths and poultices should be used ; when the horn 
is well softened and the fever allayed, pare out all of the diseased horn, 
lightly cauterize the soft tissues beneath, and poultice the foot for two 
or three days. When the granulations look red dress the wound with 
oakum balls saturated in a weak solution of tincture of aloes or spirits 
of camphor, and apply a roller bandage. Change the dressing every 
two or three days until a firm, healthy layer of new horn covers the 
wound, when the shoe may be put on, as in dry corn, and the patient 
returned to work. 

In suppurative corns the loosened horn must be removed so that the 
pus may freely escape. If the pus has worked a passage to the coro- 
nary band, and escapes from an opening between the band and hoof, 
an opening must be made on the sole, and cold baths, made astringent 
with a little sulphate of iron or copper, are to be used for a day or two. 
When the discharge becomes healthy the fistulous tracts may be in- 
jected daily with a weak solution of bichloride of mercury, nitrate of 
silver, etc., and the foot dressed as after the operation for moist corns. 
When complications arise the treatment must be varied to meet the 
11035 25 



386 

indications; if gangrene of the lateral cartilage takes place it must be 
treated as directed under the head of cartilaginous quittor ; if the vel- 
vety tissue is gangrenous it must be cut away, and if the coffin bone is 
necrosed it must be scraped, and the resulting wounds are to be treated 
on general principles. After any of the operations for corns have been 
performed, in which the soft tissues have been laid bare, it is best to 
protect the foot by a sole of soft leather, set beneath the shoe, when the 
animal is returned to work. Only in rare instances are the complica- 
tions of corn so serious as to destroy the life or usefulness of the patient. 
It is the wide, flat foot, with low heels and a thin wall, which is most 
liable to resist all efforts toward effecting a complete cure. 

BKUISE OF THE FROGr. 

When the frog is severely bruised the injury is followed by suppura- 
tion beneath the horn, and at times by partial gangrene of the plantar 
cushion. 

Causes. — A bruise of the frog generally happens from the animal 
stepping on a rough stone or other hard object. It is more apt to take 
place when the animal is trotting, running, or jumping than when he is 
at a slower pace. A stone wedged between the branches of the shoe 
in the cleft of the frog, or between the sides of the frog and the shoe, 
and remaining for a time, produces the same results. A cut through the 
horny frog with some sharp instrument or a punctured wound with a 
blunt pointed instrument may also cause suppuration and gangreue of 
the plantar cushion. Broad, fiat feet, with low heels and a fleshy frog, 
are most liable to these iujuries. 

/Symptoms. — Lameness, severe in proportion to the extent of the 
bruise and the consequent suppuration, is always an early symptom. 
When the animal moves the toe only is placed to the ground, or the 
foot is carried in the air and the patient hobbles along on three legs. 
When he is at rest the foot is set forward with the toe resting on the 
ground and the leg flexed at the fetlock joint. As soon as the pus 
finds its way to the surface the lameness improves. If the frog is ex- 
amined early the injured spot may usually be found, and if no opening 
exists the collection of pus may bo detected working its way toward 
the heels. The horn is felt to be loosened from the deeper tissues, and 
if it is pared through, a thin, yellow, watery and offensive pus escapes. 
In other cases a ragged openiug is found in the frog, leading down to 
a mass of dead, sloughing tissues, which are pale green in color if gan- 
grene of the plantar cushion has set in. In rare cases the coffin bone 
may be involved in the injury and a small portion of it become carious. 

Treatment. — If the injury is seen at once the foot should be placed 
in a bath of cold water with the object of preventing suppuration. If 
suppuration has already set in the horn of the frog, and of the bars 
and branches of the sole if necessary, is to be pared thin, so that all 
possible pressure may be removed and the foot poulticed. As soon as 



387 

the pus has loosened the horn, all the detached portions are to be cut 
away. If the pus is discharging from an opening near the hair the 
whole frog, or one-half of it will generally be found separated from the 
plantar cushion, and is to be removed with the knife. After a few 
days' time the gangrenous portion of the cushion will slough off under 
the stimulating effects of the poultice, and under rare circumstances 
only should the dead parts be removed by surgical interference. Where 
the slough is all detached the remaining wound is to be treated with 
simple stimulating dressings, such as tincture of aloes or turpentine, 
oakum balls, and bandages as directed in puuctured wounds. The lame- 
ness having subsided, and a thin layer of new horn having grown on 
the exposed parts, the foot may be shod, the frog covered with a thick 
pad of oakum, held in place by pieces of tin fitted to slide under the 
shoe, and the animal returned to slow work. Where caries of the cof- 
fin bone, etc., follow the injury the treatment recommended for these 
complications in punctured wounds of the foot must be resorted to. 

PUNCTURED WOUNDS OP THE FOOT. 

Of all the injuries to which the foot of the horse is liable none are 
more common than punctured wounds, and none are more serious than 
these may be when involving the more important organs contained within 
the hoof. A nail is the most common instrument by which the iujury 
is inflicted, yet wounds may happen from sharp pieces of rock, glass, 
wire, knives, etc. 

A wound of the foot is more serious when made by a blunt-pointed in- 
strument than when the point is sharp, and the nearer the injury is to 
the center of the foot the more likely are disastrous results to follow. 
Wounds in the heels and in the posterior parts of the frog are attended 
with but little danger, unless they are so deep as to injure the lateral 
cartilages, when quittor may follow. Punctured wounds of the anterior 
parts of the sole are more dangerous for the reason that the coffin bone 
may be injured and the suppuration, even where the wound is not deep, 
tends to spread and always gives rise to intense suffering. The most 
serious of the punctured wounds are those which happen to the center 
of the foot, and which involve, in proportion to their depth, the plantar 
cushion, the plantar aponeurosis, tbe sesamoid sheath, the navicular 
bone, or the coffin joint. 

Punctured wounds are more likely to be deep in flat or convex feet 
than in well-made feet, and, as a rule, recovery is neither so rapid nor 
so certain. These wounds are less serious in animals used for heavy 
draught than in those required to do faster work ; for the former may 
be useful, even if complete recovery is not effected. Lastly, punctured 
wounds of tbe fore feet are more serious than of the hind feet, for the 
reason that in the former the instrument is apt to enter the foot in a 
nearly perpendicular line, and, consequently, is more likely to injur© 



388 

the deeper structures of the foot, while in the hind foot the injury is 
generally near the heels and the wound oblique and less deep. 

Symptoms. — A nail or other sharp instrument may penetrate the 
frog and remain there for several days without causing lameness ; in 
fact, in many cases of punctured wound of the frog, the first evidence 
of the injury is the finding of the nail on cleaning the foot or the ap- 
pearance of an opening where the skin and frog unite from which more 
or less pus escapes. Even when the sole is perforated, if the injury is 
not too deep, no lameness develops until suppuration is established. 
In all cases of foot lameness, especially if the cause is obscure, the foot 
should be examined for evidences of injury. 

The lameness from punctured wounds, accompanied by suppuration, 
is generally severe, the patient often refusing to use the affected mem- 
ber at all. The pain being lancinating in character, he stands with 
the injured foot at rest or constantly moves it back and forth. In 
other cases the patient lies down most of the time with the feet out- 
stretched ; the breathing is rapid, the pulse fast, the temperature ele- 
vated, and the body covered with patches of sweat. 

When the plantar aponeurosis is injured the pus escapes with diffi- 
culty and the wound shows no signs of healing ; the whole foot is hot 
and very painful. If the puncture involves the sesamoid sheath the 
synovial fluid escapes. At first this fluid is pure, like joint-water, but 
later on it becomes mixed with the products of suppuration and loses 
its clear amber color. In these cases the suppuration generally ex- 
tends up the course of the flexor tendon, an abscess forms in the hollow 
of the heel, and finally opens somewhere below the fetlock joint. The 
whole coronet is more or less swollen, the discharge is profuse and often 
mixed with blood, yet the suffering is greatly relieved from the moment 
the abscess opens. 

When the wound reaches the navicular bone the lameness is intense 
from the beginning ; but after all the only certain way in which to de- 
termine the existence of this complication is in the use of the probe, 
and unless there is a free escape of synovia the probe should be used 
with the greatest of care, else the coffin joint may be opened. 

If the coffin-joint has been penetrated, either by the offending in- 
strument or by the process of suppuration, acute inflammation of the 
joint follows, accompanied by high fever, loss of appetite, etc. The 
ankle and coronet are now greatly swollen, and in many cases dropsy of 
the leg to the knee or hock, or even to the body, follows. If the process 
of suppuration continues small abscesses appear at intervals on different 
parts of the coronet, the patient rapidly loses flesh, and may die from 
the effects of the intense suffering and blood poisoning. In other cases 
the suppuration soon disappears and recovery is effected by the joint 
becoming stiff (anchylosis). 

When the wound is forward, near the toe, and deep enough to injure 
the coffin bone, caries always results. The presence of the dead pieces 



of bone can be determined by the use of the probe ; the bone feels rough 
and gritty. Furthermore, there is no disposition upon the part of the 
wound to heal. 

Besides the complications above mentioned others, equally as serious, 
may be met with. The tendons may soften and rupture, the hoof may 
slough off, quittors develop, or sidebones and ringbones grow. Finally 
laminitis of the opposite foot may happen if the patient persists in 
standing most of the time, or lockjaw may cause early death. 

Treatment. — In all cases of punctured wound of the foot the horn 
around the seat of injury should be thinned down, a free opening made 
for the escape of the products of suppuration, and the foot placed in a 
poultice. If the injury is not serious recovery takes place in a few days' 
time. Where the wound is deeper it is better to put the foot in a cold 
bath or under a stream of cold water, as advised in the treatment for 
quittor. 

If the bone is injured cold baths, containing about 2 ounces each of 
sulphate of copper and sulphate of iron, may be used until the dead 
bone is well softened, when it should be removed by an operation. The 
animal must be cast for this operation, the sole pared away until the 
diseased bone is exposed, when all the dead particles are to be removed 
with a drawing-knife and the wound dressed with a 5 per cent, solution 
of carbolic acid, oakum balls, and a roller bandage. 

Wounds of the bone which are made by a blunt-pointed instrument, 
like the square-pointed cut nail, in which a portion of the surface is 
driven into the deeper parts of the bone, always progress slowly, and 
should be operated upon as soon as the conditions are favorable. Even 
wounds of the navicular bone, accompanied by caries, may be operated 
on and the life of the patient saved ; but the most skillful surgery is 
required in these cases and only the experienced operator should 
undertake their treatment. 

If there is an escape of pure synovial fluid from a wound of the sole, 
without injury to the bone, a small pencil of corrosive sublimate should 
be introduced to the bottom of the wound and the foot dressed as 
directed above. 

The other complications are to be treated as directed under their 
proper headings. 

After healing of the wounds has been effected, lameness, with more 
or less swelling of the coronary region, may remain. In these cases the 
coronet should be blistered, or even fired with the actual cautery, and 
the patient turned to pasture. If the lameness still persists, and is not 
due to a stiff joint, unnerving may be resorted to, and in many cases 
with very good results. If the joint is anchylosed of course no treat- 
ment can relieve it, and the patient must either be put to very slow 
work or kept for breeding purposes only. 

" Priclc in shoeing " is an injury which should be considered under 
the head of punctured wounds of the foot. The nails by which the 



390 

shoe is fastened to the hoof may produce an injury followed by inflam- 
mation aud suppuration in two days, either by penetrating the soft tis- 
sues directly or by being driven so deep that the inner layers of the 
horu of the wall are pressed against the soft tissues with such force as 
to crush them. In either case the animal generally goes lame soon 
after shoeing unless the injury is at the toe, when the first evidence of 
the trouble may be the discharge of pus at the coronet. When lame- 
ness follows close upon the setting of the shoes, without other appre- 
ciable cause, each nail should be lightly struck with a hammer when 
the one at fault will be detected by the flinching of the animal. 

The treatment consists in drawing the nail, and if the soft tissues 
have been penetrated, or if suppuration has commenced the horn must 
be pared away until the diseased parts are exposed. The foot is now 
to be poulticed for a day or two, or until the lameness and suppuration 
have ceased. If the discharge of pus from the coronet is the first evi- 
dence of the disease the offending nail must be found and removed, 
the parts pared out, aud a weak solution of carbolic acid injected at the 
coronet until the fistulous tract has healed. 

CONTRACTED HEELS. 

Contracted heels, or hoof-bound as it is sometimes called, is a common 
disease, especially among horses kept on hard floors in dry stables, and 
in such as are subject to much saddle work. It consists in an atrophy or 
shrinkiug of the tissues of the foot, whereby the lateral diameter of the 
heels in particular is diminished. It affects the fore feet principally, 
but is seen occasionally in the hind feet, where it is of less importance 
for the reason that the hind foot first strikes the ground with the toe, and, 
consequently, less expansion of the heels is necessary than in the fore 
feet where the weight is first received on the heels, aud any interference 
•with the expansibility of this part of the foot interferes with locomotion 
:aud ultimately gives rise to lameness. Usually but one foot is affected 
:at a time, but when both are diseased the change is greater in one than 
dn the other. Occasionally but one heel, and that the inner one, is 
contracted ; in these cases there is less likely to be lameness aud per- 
manent impairment of the animal's usefulness. According to the opin- 
ion of some of the French veterinarians, hoof-bound should be divided 
into two classes — total contraction, in which the whole foot is shrunken 
in size, and contraction of the heels, when the trouble extends only from 
the quarters backward. (Plate xxxiv, Figs 4 and 7.) 

Causes. — Animals raised in wet or marshy districts, when taken to 
(towns and kept on dry floors, are liable to have contracted heels, not 
:alone because the horn becomes dry but because fever of the feet and 
wasting away of the soft tissues result from the change. Another com- 
mon cause of contracted heels is to be found in faulty shoeing, such as 
rasping the wall, cutting away the frog, heels, and bars ; high calks and 
the use of nails too near the heels. Contracted heels may happen also 



391 

as one of the results of other diseases of the foot ; for instance, it often 
accompanies thrush, side bones, ring bones, canker, navicular disease, 
corns, sprains of the flexor tendons, of the sesamoid and suspensory lig- 
aments, and from excessive knuckling of the fetlock joints. 

Symptoms. — Iu contraction of the heels the foot has lost its circular 
shape, and the walls from the quarters backward approach to a straight 
line. The ground surface of the foot is now smaller than the coronary 
circumference ; the frog is pinched between the inclosing heels, is much 
shrunken, and at times is affected with thrush. The sole is more con- 
cave than natural, the heels are higher, and the bars are long and nearly 
perpendicular. The whole hoof is dry, and so hard that it can scarcely 
be cut ; the parts toward the heels are scaly and often ridged like the 
horns of a ram, while fissures, more or less deep, may be seen at the 
quarters and heels following the direction of the horn fibers. (Plate 
xxxiii, Fig. 10.) When the disease is well advanced lameness is pres- 
ent ; in the earlier stages there is only an uneasiness evinced by fre- 
quent shifting of the affected foot or feet. Stumbling is common, espe- 
cially on hard or rough roads. In most cases the animal comes out of 
the stable stiff and inclined to walk on the toe, but after exercise he 
may go free again. He wears his shoes off at the toe in a short time, 
no matter whether he works or remains in the stable. If the shoe is 
removed and the foot pared, in old cases a dry, mealy horn will be found 
where the sole and wall unite, extending upward in a narrow line toward 
the quarters. 

Treatment. — First of all, the preventive measures must be considered. 
The feet must be kept moist and the horn be prevented from drying out 
by the use of moist sawdust or other damp bedding; by occasional 
poultices of boiled turnips, linseed meal, etc., and the use of greasy 
hoof ointments to both the sole and walls of the feet. The wall of the 
foot should be spared from the abuse of the rasp ; the frog, heels, and 
bars are not to be mutilated with the knife, nor should calks be used 
on the shoe except when absolutely necessary. The shoes should be 
reset at least once a month, to prevent the feet from becoming too long, 
and daily exercise must be insisted on. 

As to curative measures a diversity of opinion exists. A number of 
kinds of special shoes have been invented, having ior an object the 
spreading of the heels, and perhaps any of these, if properly used, 
would eventually effect the desired result. But a serious objection to 
most of these shoes is that they are expensive and often difficult of 
make and application. The method of treatment which I have adopted 
in these cases is not only attended with good results, but is inexpen- 
sive, if the loss of the patient's services for a time is not considered 
a part of the question. It consists, first, in the use of poultices or 
baths of cold water for a few days until the horn is thoroughly soft- 
ened. The foot is now prepared for the shoe in the usual way, ex- 
cept that the heels are lowered a little, the frog remaining untouched. 
A shoe called a " tip " is made by cutting off both branches at the cen- 



392 

ter of the foot and drawing the ends down to an edge. The tapering 
of the branches should begin at the toe, and the shoe should be of 
the usual width, with both the upper and lower surfaces flat. This 
tip is to be fastened on with six or eight small nails, all set well for- 
ward, two being in the toe. With a common foot rasp begin at the 
heels, close to the coronet, aud cut away the horn of the wall until only 
a thin layer covers the soft tissues beneath. Cut forward until the 
new surface meets the same 2% or 3 inches from the heel. The same 
sloping shape is to be observed in cuttiug downward toward the bot- 
tom of the foot, at which point the wall is to retain its normal thickness. 
The foot is now blistered all around the coronet with Spanish fly oint- 
ment, and when this is well set the patient is to be turned to pasture 
in a damp field or meadow. The blister should be repeated in three or 
four weeks, aud, as a rule, the patient can be returned to work in two 
or three months' time. The object of the tip is to throw the weight on 
the frog and heels, which are readily spread after the horn has been cut 
away on the sides of the wall. The internal structures of the foot at 
the heels, being relieved of excessive pressure, regain their normal con- 
dition if the disease is not of too long standing. The blister not only 
tends to relieve any inflammation which may be present, but it also 
stimulates a rapid growth of healthy horn, which, in most cases, ulti- 
mately forms a wide and normal heel. In old chronic cases, with a 
shrunken frog and increased concavity of the sole, accompanied by ex- 
cessive wasting of all the internal tissues of the foot, of course satis- 
factory results can not be expected and are rarely secured. Still much 
relief, if not an entire cure, may be affected by these measures. 

When thrush is present as a complication its cure must be sought by 
such measures as are directed in a consideration of this disease under 
its proper heading. If sidebones, ringbones, navicular disease, con- 
tracted tendons, or other diseases have been the cause of contracted 
heels, of course treatment of the result will be useless until the cause 
is removed. 

SAND ORACKS. 

A sand-crack is a solution of continuity or fissure in the horn of the 
wall of the foot. These fissures are quite narrow, aud as a general rule 
they follow the direction of the horny fibers. They may happen on any 
part of the wall, but ordinarily they are only seen directly in front, 
when they are called toe-cracks ; and on the lateral parts of the wall, 
when they are known as quarter-cracks. (Plate xxxin.) 

Toe-cracks are most common in the hind feet, while quarter-cracks 
nearly always affect the fore feet. The inside quarter is more liable to 
the injury thau the outside one, for the reason that this quarter is not 
only the thinner, but during locomotion receives a greater part of the 
weight of the body. A. sand-crack may be superficial, involving only 



393 

the outer parts of the wall, or it may be deep, involving the whole 
thickness of the wall and the soft tissues beneath. 

The toe-crack is most likely to be complete — that is extending from 
the coronary baud to the sole — while the quarter-crack is nearly al- 
ways incomplete, at least when of comparatively recent origin. Sand- 
cracks are most serious when they involve the coronary band in the 
injury. They may be complicated at any time by hemorrhage, inflam- 
mation of the lamiuse, suppuration, gangrene of the lateral cartilage 
and of the extensor tendon, caries of the coffin bone, or the growth of 
a horny tumor known as a keraphyllocele. 

Causes. — Relative dryness of the horn is the principal predisposing 
cause of sand-cracks. Excessive dryness is perhaps not a more prolific 
cause of cracks in the horn than alternate changes from damp to dry. 
It is even claimed that these injuries are more common in animals 
working on wet roads than in those working on roads that are rough 
and dry; at least these injuries are not common in mountainous coun- 
tries. Animals used to running at pasture when transferred to stables 
with hard, dry floors are more liable, especially to quarter-cracks, than 
those accustomed to stables. Small feet, with thick, hard hoofs, and 
feet which are excessively large, are more susceptible to sand-cracks 
than those of better proportion. A predisposition to quarter-crack ex- 
ists in contracted feet, and in those where the toe turns out or the inside 
quarter turns under. 

Heavy shoes, large nails, and nails set too far back toward the heels, 
together with such diseases as canker, quittor, grease, and suppurative 
corns must be included as occasional predisposing causes of sand-cracks. 

Fast work on hard roads, jumping, and blows on the coronet, together 
with calk wounds of the feet, are accidental causes of quarter-cracks in 
particular. Toe-cracks are more likely to be caused by heavy pulling 
on slippery roads and pavements or on steep hills. 

Symptoms. — The fissure in the horn is ofttimes the only evidence of 
the disease ; and even this may be accidentally or purposely hidden 
from casual view by mud, ointments, tar, wax, putty, gutta-purcha, or 
by the long hairs of the coronet. 

Sand-cracks sometimes commence on the internal face of the wall, 
involving its whole thickness, excepting a thin layer on the outer sur- 
face. In these cases the existence of the injury may be suspected from 
a slight depression, which begins near the coronary band and follows 
the direction of the horny fibers, but the trouble can only be positively 
diagnosed by paring away the outside layers of horn until the fissure 
is exposed. In toe-cracks the Avails of the fissure are in close apposi- 
tion when the foot receives the weight of the body, but when the foot 
is raised from the ground the fissure opens. In quarter crack the op- 
posite is true, and the fissure closes when the weight is removed from 
the foot. As a rule sand-cracks begin at the coronary band, and as 
they become older they not only extend downward, but they also grow 



394 

deeper. In old cases, particularly in toe-crack, the born on the borders 
of the fissure loses its vitality and scales off, sometimes through the 
greater part of its thickness, leaving behind a rough and irregular 
channel extending from the coronet to the end of the toe. 

In many cases of quarter-crack, and in some cases of toe-crack as 
well, if the edges remain close together, with but little motion, the fis- 
sure is dry, but in other cases a thin, offensive discharge issues from 
the crack and the ulcerated soft tissues, or a fungus-like growth, pro- 
trude from the narrow opening. 

When the cracks are deep and the motion of their edges considerable, 
so that the soft tissues are bruised and pinched with every movement, 
a constant inflammation of the parts is maintained and the lameness is 
severe. 

Ordinarily, the lameness of sand crack is slight when the patient 
walks ; but it is greatly aggravated when he is made to trot, and the 
harder the road the worse he limps. Furthermore, the lameness is 
greater going down hill than up, for the reason that these conditions 
are favorable to an increased motion in the edges of the fissure. Lastly, 
more or less hemorrhage accompanies the inception of a sand crack when 
the whole thickness of the wall is involved. Subsequent hemorrhages 
may also take place from fast work, jumping, or a misstep. 

Treatment. — In so far as preventive measures are concerned but little 
can be done. The suppleness of the horn is, of course, to be maintained 
by the use of ointments, damp floor, bedding, etc. The shoe is to be 
proportioned to the weight and work of the animal; the nails holding 
it in place are to be of proper size and not driven too near the heels ; 
sufficient calks and toe-pieces must be added to the shoes of horses 
working on slippery roads, and the evils of jumping, fast driving, etc., 
are to be avoided. 

When a fissure has made its appearance, means are to be adopted 
which will prevent it from growing longer or deeper ; and this can only 
be done by arresting all motion in the edges. The best and simplest 
artificial appliance for holding the borders of a toe crack together is 
the Vachette clasp. These clasps, and the instruments necessary for 
their application, can be had of any of the more prominent makers of 
veterinary instruments. These instruments comprise a cautery iron 
with which two notches are burned in the wall, one on each side of the 
crack, and forceps with which the clasps are closed into place in the 
bottom of the notches and the edges of the fissure brought close together. 
The clasps being made of stiff steel wire are strong enough to prevent 
all motion in the borders of the crack. Before these clasps are applied 
the fissure should be thoroughly cleansed and dried, and, if the injury 
is of recent origin, the crack may be filled with a putty made of 2 parts 
ofgutta percha and 1 part of gum ammoniac. The number of clasps 
to be used is to be determined by the length of the crack, the amount 
of motion to be arrested, etc. Generally the clasps are from one-half 



395 

to three-quarters of an inch apart. The clasps answer equally as well 
in quarter crack if the wall is sufficiently thick and not too dry and 
brittle to withstand the strain. 

In the absence of these instruments and clasps a hole may be drilled 
through the horn across the fissure, and the crack closed with a thin 
nail made of tough iron, neatly clinched at both ends. A plate of steel 
or brass is sometimes fitted to the parts and fastened on with short 
screws ; while this appliance may prevent much gaping of the fissure 
it does not entirely arrest motion of the edges for the simple reason that 
the plate and screw can not be rendered immobile. 

If, for any reason, the above measures fail or can not be used recourse 
must be had to an operation. The horn is softened by the use of warm 
baths and poultices, the patient cast and the walls of the fissure are en- 
tirely removed with the knife. Tbe horn removed is in the shape of 
the letter V with the base at the coronet. Care must be taken not to 
injure the coronary baud and the laminae. The wound is to be treated 
with mild stimulant dressings, such as a weak solution of carbolic acid, 
tincture of aloes, etc., oakum balls and a roller bandage. After a few 
days the wound will become covered with a new, white horn, and the 
oakum and bandages only will be needed. As the new quarter grows 
out the lameness disappears, and the patient may be shod with a bar 
shoe and returned to work. 

In all cases of sand crack the growth of horn should be stimulated by 
cauterizing the coronary band, or by the use of blisters. In simple 
quarter crack recovery will often take place if the coronet is blistered, 
the foot shod with a " tip," and the patient turned to pasture. 

The shoe, in toe crack, should have a clip on each side of the fissure 
and should be thicker at the toe than at the heels. The ibot should be 
lowered at the heels by paring, and spared at the toe, except directly 
under the fissure where it is to be pared away until it sets free from 
the shoe. 

When any of the complications referred to above arise, special meas- 
ures must of course be resorted to. For the proper treatment of gan- 
grene of the lateral cartilage and extensor tendon and caries of the 
coffin bone, reference may be had to the articles on quittors. If the 
horny tumor known as keraphyllocele should develop it is to be re- 
moved by the use of the knife. Since this tumor develops on the in- 
side of the horny box and may involve other important organs of the 
foot in disease, its removal should only be undertaken by a skillful 
surgeon. 

NAVICULAR DISEASE. 

Navicular disease, often called "navicular arthritis " by the English, 
is an inflamation of the sesamoid sheath, induced by repeated bruising 
or laceration, and complicated in many cases by inflammation and caries 
of the navicular bone. In some instances the disease undoubtedly be- 



39G 

gins in the bone, and the sesamoid sheath becomes involved subse- 
quently by an extension of the inflammatory process. (Plate xxxn, 
Fig. 5.) 

The thoroughbred horse is more commonly affected with the disease 
than any other, yet no class or breed of horses is entirely exempt. The 
mule, however, seems rarely, if ever, to suffer from it. For reasons 
which will appear when considering the causes of the disease the hind 
feet are not liable to be affected. As a general rule but one fore foot 
suffers from the disease, but if both should be attacked the trouble has 
become chronic in the first before the second shows signs of the disease. 

Causes. — To comprehend fully how navicular disease maybe caused by 
conditions and usages common to nearly all animals, it is necessary to 
recall the peculiar anatomy of the parts involved in the process and the 
functions which they perform in locomotion. It must be remembered 
that the fore legs largely support the weight of the body when the ani- 
mal is at rest, and that the faster he moves the greater is the shock 
which the fore feet must sustain as the body is thrown forward upou 
them by the propelling force of the hind legs. This shock could not be 
withstood by the tissues of the fore feet and legs were it not that it is 
largely dissipated by the elastic muscles which bind the shoulder to the 
body, the ease with which the arm closes on the shoulder blade, aud 
the spring of the fetlock joint. But even these means are not sufficient 
within themselves to protect the foot from injury, and so nature has fur- 
ther supplemented them by placing the coffin joint ou the hind part of 
the coffin bone instead of directly ou top of it, whereby a large part of 
the shock of locomotion is dispersed before it can reach the vertical 
column, represented in the cannon, knee, and arm bones. A still fur- 
ther provision is made by placing a soft, elastic pad — the frog and 
plantar cushion — at the heels to receive the sesamoid expansion of the 
flexor tendon as it is forced downward by the pressure of the coronet 
bone against the navicular. Extraordinary as these means may ap- 
pear for the destruction of shock, aud ample as they are when the ani- 
mal is at a slow pace or unweighted by rider or load, they fail to com- 
pletely relieve the parts from concussion aud excessive pressure when- 
ever the opposite conditions are present. The result, then, is that 
the coronet bone forces the navicular hard against the flexor tendon, 
which, in turn, presses firmly against the navicular as the force of the 
contracting muscles lifts the tendon into place. It is self-evident, then, 
that the more rapid the pace and the greater the load, the greater must 
these contending forces be, and the greater the liability to injury. For 
the same reason horses with excessive knee action are more likely 
to suffer from this disease than others, concussion of the foot and intense 
pressure on the tendon being common attendants upou their usage. Be- 
sides these exciting causes must be considered those which predispose to 
the disease. Most prominent among these is heredity. It may be claimed, 
however, that an inherited predisposition to navicular disease consists 
not so much in a special susceptibility of the tissues which are involved 



397 

in the process as in a vice of conformation which, as is well known, is 
likely to be transmitted from parent to offspring. The faults of con- 
formation most likely to be followed by the development of navicular 
disease are an insufficient plantar cushion, a small frog, high heels, ex- 
cessive knee action, and contracted heels. Finally, the environments 
of domestication and use, such as dry stables, heavy pulling, bad shoe- 
ing, punctured wounds, etc., all have their influence in developing this 
disease. 

Symptoms. — In the early stages of navicular disease the symptoms 
are generally very obscure. When the disease begins in inflammation 
of the navicular bone the animal points the affected foot while at rest, a 
time before any lameness is seen. While at work he apparently travels 
as well as ever, but when placed in the stable one foot is set out in front 
of the other, resting on the toe, with fetlock and knee flexed. After a 
time, if the case is closely watched, the animal takes a few lame steps 
while at work, but the lameness disappears as suddenly as it came and 
the driver doubts if the animal was really lame at all. Later on the 
patient has a lame spell which may last during a greater part of the 
day, but the next morning it is gone ; he leaves the stable all right, but 
goes lame again during the day. In time he has a severe attack of 
lameness, which may last for a week or more, when a remission takes 
place and it maybe weeks or months before another attack supervenes. 
Finally, he becomes constantly lame, and the more he is used the greater 
the lameness. ; 

In the lameness from navicular disease the affected leg always takes 
a short step, and the toe of the foot first strikes the ground, so that 
the shoe is most worn at this point. If the patient is made to move 
backwards the foot is set down with exceeding great care, and the 
weight rests upon the affected leg but a moment. When exercised he 
often stumbles, and if the road is rough he may fall on his knees. If 
he is lame in both feet the gait is stilty, the shoulders seem stiff, and 
if the patient is made to work he sweats profusely from the intense 
pain. Early in the development of the disease a careful examination 
will reveal some increased heat in the heels and frog, particularly after 
work ; as the disease progresses this becomes more marked until the 
whole foot is hot to the touch. At the same time there is au increased 
sensibility of the foot, for the patient flinches from the percussion of a 
hammer lightly applied to the frog and heels, or from the pressure of 
the smith's pincers. The frog is generally shrunken, often of a pale 
reddish color, and at times it is affected with thrush. If the heels are 
pared away so that all the weight is received on the frog, or if the same 
result is attained by the application of a bar shoe, the animal is exces- 
sively lame. The muscles of the leg and shoulder shrink away, and 
often tremble as the animal stands at rest. After months of lameness 
the foot is found to be shrunken in its diameter and apparently length- 
ened j the horn is dry and brittle and has lost its natural gloss, while 



398 

circular ridges, developed most toward the heels, cover the upper part 
of the hoof. When both feet are affected the animal points first one 
foot then the other, and stands with the hind feet well forward beneath 
the body so as to relieve the forefeet as much as possible from bearing 
weight. In old cases the wasting of the muscles and the knuckling at 
the fetlock become so great that the leg can not be straightened, and 
locomotion can scarcely be performed. The disease generally makes a 
steady progress without inclining to recovery — the remission of symp- 
toms ill the earlier stages should not be interpreted as evidence that 
the process has terminated. The complications usually seen are ring- 
bones, sidebones, thrush, contracted heels, quarter cracks, and frac- 
tures of the navicular, coronet, and pastern bones. 

Treatment. — But few cases of navicular disease recover. In the 
early stages the wall of the heels should be rasped away as directed iu 
the treatment for contracted heels, until the horn is quite thin; the 
coronet should be well blistered with Spanish -fly ointment, and the 
patient turned to grass in a damp field or meadow. After three or four 
weeks' time the blister should be repeated. This treatment is to be 
continued for two or three months. Plane shoes are to be put on when 
the patient is returned to work. In chronic cases the animal should 
be put to slow, easy work. To relieve the pain, neurotomy may be 
performed — an operation in which the sense of feeling is destroyed in 
the foot by cutting out pieces of the nerve at the fetlock. This opera- 
tion in nowise cures the disease, aud since it may be attended with 
serious results can only be advised iu certain favorable cases, to be de- 
termined by the veterinarian. 

SIDEBONES. 

A sidebone consists in a transformation of the lateral cartilages found 
on the wings of the coffin bone into bony matter by the deposition 
of lime salts. The disease is a common one, especially in heavy horses 
used for draft, in cavalry horses, cow-ponies, and other saddle horses, 
and in runners and trotters. 

Sidebones are peculiar to the fore feet, yet they occasionally develop 
in the hind feet where they are of little importance, since they cause 
no lameness. In many iustances sidebones are of slow growth, and 
being unaccompanied by acute inflammation, they cause no lameness 
until such time as, by reason of their size, they interfere with the action 
of the joint. (Plate xxxn, Fig. 4.) 

Causes. — Sidebones often grow in heavy horses without any apparent 
injury, and their development has been attributed to the overexpansion 
of the cartilages caused by the great weight of the animal. Blows, and 
other injuries to the cartilages, may set up an inflammatory process 
which ends in the formation of these bony growths. High-heeled shoes, 
high calks, and long feet are always classed among the conditions which 
may excite the growth of sidebones. They are often seen in connec- 



399 

tion with contracted heels, ringbones, navicular diseases, punctured 
wounds of the foot, quarter crack, and occasionally as a sequel to 
founder. 

Symptoms. — In the earlier stages of the disease, if inflammation is 
present, the only evidence of the trouble to be detected is a little fever 
over the seat of the affected cartilage and a slight lameness. In the 
lameness of sidebones the toe of the foot first strikes the ground and 
the step is shorter than natural. The subject comes out of the stable 
stiff and sore, but the gait is more free after exercise. 

Since the deposit of the bony matter often begins in that part of the 
cartilage whereitis attached to the coffin bone, the diseased process may 
exist for some time before the bony growth can be seen or felt. Later 
on, however, the cartilage can be felt to have lost its soft elastic char- 
acter, and by standing in front of the animal a prominence of the coron- 
ary region at the quarters can be seen. Occasionally these bones be- 
come so large as to bulge the hoof outward, and by pressing on the joint 
they so interfere with locomotion that the animal becomes entirely 
useless. 

Treatment. — So soon as the disease can be diagnosed active treat- 
ment should be adopted. Cold water bandages are to be used for a few 
days to relieve the fever and soreness. 

The improvement consequent on the use of these simple measures 
often leads to the belief that the disease has recovered ; but with a return 
to work the lameness, fever, etc., reappears. For this reason the use of 
blisters, or better still the firing iron, should follow on the discontinu- 
ance of the cold bandages. 

But in many instances no treatment will arrest the growth of these 
bony tumors, and as a palliative measure neurotomy must be resorted 
to. Generally this operation will so relieve the pain of locomotion 
that the patient may be used for slow work; but in animals used for 
faster driving or for saddle purposes the operation is practically useless. 
Some years ago I unnerved a number of cavalry horses at Fort Leaven- 
worth that were suffering from sidebones, and the records show that in 
less than seven months' time all were more lame than ever. Since a 
predisposition to develop sidebones may be inherited, animals suffer- 
ing from this disease should not be used for breeding purposes unless 
the trouble is known to have originated from an accident. 

RINGBONE. 

A ringbone is the growth of a bony tumor on the ankle. This tumor 
is in fact not the disease, but simply the result effected by an inflam- 
matory action set up in the periosteum and bone tissue proper of the 
large and small pastern bones. (Plate xxxn, Fig. 1.) 

Causes. — Injuries, such as blows, sprains, overwork in young unde- 
veloped animals, fast work on hard roads, jumping, etc., are among the 
principal exciting causes of ringbones. Horses most disposed to this 



400 

disease are those with short upright pasterns, for the reason that the 
shock of locomotion is but imperfectly dissipated in the fore legs of 
these animals. Improper shoeing, such as the use of high calks, a loo 
great shortening of the toe aud correspondingly high heels, predispose 
to this disease by increasing the concussion to the feet. 

Symptoms. — The first symptom of an actively developed ringbone is 
the appearance of a lameness more or less acute. If the bony tumor 
forms on the side or upper parts of the large pastern its growth is gen- 
erally unattended with acute inflammatory action, and, consequently, 
produces no lameness or evident fever. These are called false ring- 
bones. But when the tumors form on the whole circumference of the 
ankle, or simply in front under the extensor tendon, or behind under the 
flexor tendons ; or if they involve the joints between the two pastern 
bones, or between the small pastern and the coffin bone, the lameness is 
always severe. These constitute the true ringbone. Besides the lame- 
ness the ankle of the affected limb presents more or less heat, and in 
many instances a rather firm, though limited, swelling of the deeper 
tissues over the seat of the inflammatory process. The lameness of 
ringbone is characteristic in that the heel is first placed on the ground 
when the disease is in a fore leg, and the ankle is kept as rigid as pos- 
sible. In the hind leg, however, the toe strikes the ground first when 
the ringbone is high on the ankle, just as in health; but the ankle is 
maintained in a rigid position. If the bony growth is under the front 
tendon of the hind leg, or if it involves the coffin joint, the heel is 
brought to the ground first. In the early stages of the disease it is not 
always easy to diagnose ringbone; but when the deposits have reached 
some size they can be felt and seen as well. 

The importance of a ringbone of course depends on its seat, and often 
on its size. If it interferes with the joints, or with the tendons, it may 
cause an incurable lameness even though small. If it is on the sides 
of the large pastern, the lameness generally disappears as soon as the 
tumor has reached its growth and the inflammation subsides. Even 
where the pastern joint is iuvolved, if complete anchylosis results, the 
patient may recover from the lameness with simply an imperfect action 
ot the foot remaining, due to the stiff joint. 

Treatment. — Before the bony growth has commenced, the inflammatory 
process may be cut short by the use of cold baths and wet baudages, 
followed by one or more blisters. If the bony deposits have begun, 
the firing iron should always be used. Even where the tumors are 
large and the pastern joint involved, firing often hastens the process of 
anchylosis, and should always be tried. 

Where the lower joint is involved, or where the tumor interferes with 
the action of the tendons, of course recovery is not to be expected. In 
many of these latter cases, however, the animal may be made servicea- 
ble by proper shoeing. If the patient walks with the toe on the ground 
the foot should be shod with a high-heeled shoe and a short toe. On 



401 

the other hand, if he walks on the heel a thick-toed and thin heeled 
shoe must be worn. 

Siuce ringbone is considered to be one of the hereditary diseases no 
animal suffering from this trouble should ever be used for breeding 
purposes. 

LAMINITIS. 

By what term this disease was first known to man is a question 
unanswerable. During many years in the receut past, and before an 
approximate knowledge of its lesions was had, it was usually desig- 
nated as "founder." 

In country districts and amongst the great majority of the laity this 
name is yet almost exclusively used ; and undoubtedly it was first so 
employed because it best expressed the physical inability or disinclina- 
tion upon the part of the patient to proceed in his gait, resembling 
thereby a ship similarly disabled. That it could have been adopted 
upon any other ground hardly seems possible, for the etymology of the 
term does not indicate that it was so used because it contained even the 
most remote intimation either as to the seat of the disease, its nature 
or its cause. 

Of the nature of laminitis but little is to be said, it being a simple 
inflammation of the sensitive laminae of the feet, characterized by the 
general phenomena attending inflammation of the skin and mucous 
membranes, producing no constitutional disturbances except those de- 
pendent upon the local disease, and having a strong tendency, in severe 
cases, to destructive disorganization of the tissues affected. 

Causes.— The causes of laminitis are as wide and variable as in any 
of the local inflammations, and may be divided into two classes — the 
predisposing and exciting. 

Predisposing causes. — From personal observations I do not know that 
anj r particular construction of foot or any special breed of horses are 
thereby predisposed to this disease, neither can I find anything to 
warrant the assumption that it is in any way hereditary; so that while 
we may easily cultivate a predisposition of the disease upon the part 
of the tissues subject to become affected, the disease itself does not 
originate without an exciting cause. Like most other tissues, a pre- 
disposition to inflammation may be induced in the sensitive Iaminre by 
any cause which lessens their power of withstanding the work imposed 
on them. It exists to an extent in those animals unaccustomed to 
work, particularly if they are plethoric, and in all those that have been 
previous subjects of the disease, for the same rule holds good here that 
we find in so many diseases — i. e., that one attack impairs the functional 
activity of the affected tissues and thus renders them more easy of a 
subsequent inflammation. 

Unusual excitement by determining an excessive blood supply, bad 
shoeing, careless paring of the feet by removing the sole support, as 
11035 26 



402 

well as high calkings without corresponding toe pieces, must be included 
under this head. 

Exciting causes. — The exciting causes of laminitis are many and varied, 
the most common being concussion, overexertion, exhaustion, rapid 
changes of temperature, ingestion of various foods, purgatives, and the 
oft- mentioned metastasis. 

(1) Concussion acts as a producer of this disease by the local overstim- 
ulation which it occasions, the excessive excitement being followed by 
an almost complete exhaustion of the functional activity of the laminated 
tissues, the exhaustion by congestion, and eventually by inflammation. 
But congestion here, as in all other tissues, is not necessarily followed 
by inflammation; for although the principal symptoms belonging to 
true laminitis are present, the congestion maybe relieved before the proc- 
esses of inflammation are fully established. This is the condition that 
obtains in the many so-called cases of laminitis, which recover in from 
twenty four to forty-eight hours' time. Theseare the cases which should 
be called congestion of thelaininse. 

Laminitis from concussion is common in track horses trotting races 
when not in condition, especially if they are carrying the obnoxious 
toe weights, and in green horses put to work on city pavements to 
which they are unaccustomed. Concussion from long drives on dirt 
roads is at times productive of the same results, notably when the 
weather is extremely warm, or at least when the relative change of 
temperature is great. But undoubtedly the exhaustion so apt to be 
produced under these circumstances must be considered as exerting 
almost as great an influence as an exciting cause as does the long-con- 
tinued concussion. This same combination of causes must also be ad- 
mitted as determining the disease when seen at times in hunters, for 
the imposed weight of the rider increases the demands made upon the 
function of these tissues, and their powers of resisting congestion and 
its consequences are the sooner exhausted. 

(2) Overexertion, as heavy pulling or rapid work, even where there 
is no chance for immoderate concussion, occasionally results in this 
disease, although in the majority of instances exhaustion is a conjunc- 
tive cause, for overexertion can not be long continued without induc- 
ing exhaustion. 

(3) Exhaustion, in whatever manner produced, is nearly as prolific a 
source of laminitis as is concussion, for when the physical strength has 
been greatly impaired, even though but temporarily, some part of the 
economy is rendered more vulnerable to disease than others, and it is 
not strange that in many instances it should be those parts still called 
upon to perform their functiou of maintaining the weight of the body 
after their activity has been exhausted. It is to this cause we must 
ascribe those many cases which we see following a hard day's work, 
where at no time has there been overexertion or immoderate concus- 
sion,. 



403 

In the same manner a strong tendency to laminitis is induced in 
horses on sea voyages, the exhaustion of the lamina?, resulting from the 
continual constrained position which the animal is compelled to main- 
tain on account of the rocking motion of the vessel. 

The same cause exists where one foot has been blistered, or where 
one limb is incapacitated from any other reason ; for the opposite mem- 
ber being called on to do double duty, soon becomes exhausted, and con- 
gestion, followed by inflammation, results as a matter of course. Where 
one foot only becomes laminitic, it is customary to find the other or 
corresponding member participating at a later date, not always because 
of sympathy, but because the transfer of all the functional performance 
to the one foot proves within itself a sufficient exciting cause. 

(4) Eapid changes of temperature act as an exciting cause of lami- 
nitis in precisely the same way as they act to produce disease in other 
tissues, the result of these variations of temperature showing itself 
upon those parts rendered particularly susceptible to pathological 
changes from some impairment of their natural disease-resisting powers. 

This change of temperature may be induced by drinking large quan- 
tities of cold water while in an overheated condition. Here the internal 
heat is rapidly reduced, the neighboring tissues and blood-vessels con- 
strained, and the blood supply to these organs greatly diminished, 
while the quantity sent to the surface is correspondingly increased. 
True, in many of the cases which result from this cause there has not 
been sufficient labor performed to impair the powers of the laminae, and 
I am inclined to the opinion that laminitis is the more readily induced 
than congestion or inflammation of the skin or other surface organs 
because of the impossibility upon the part of the laminae to relieve 
themselves of the threatened congestion by the general safety-valve of 
perspiration. A cold wind or relatively cold air allowed to play upon the 
body when heated and wet with sweat has virtually the same result, for 
it arrests evaporation and rapidly cools the external surface, thereby de- 
termining an excess of blood to such organs and tissues as are protected 
from this outside influence. In many instances this happens to be some 
of the internal organs, as the lungs, where the previous work has been 
rapid and their functional activity impaired ; but in numerous other 
instances the determination is toward the feet, and that it is so depends 
upon two very palpable facts; first, that these tissues have been greatly 
excited and are already receiving as much blood as they can accommo- 
date consistently with health ; secondly, even though these tissues 
are classed with those of the surface, their protection from atmospheric 
influences by means of the thick box of horn incasing them renders 
them in this respect equivalent to internal organs. 

Again, a still more limited local action of cold excites this disease, 
as seen from driving through water or washing the feet or legs while 
the animal is warm or just in from work. Here a very marked reaction 
takes place in the surface tissues of the limbs,, and passive congestioa 



404 

of the foot results from an interference with the return flow of blood, 
which is being sent to these organs in excess. These are more apt to be 
simple cases of congestion, soon to recover, yet they may become true 
cases of laminitis. Youattsays: " The danger is not confined to the 
change from heat to cold ; a sudden transition from cold to heat is as 
injurious, and therefore it is that so many horses after having been 
ridden far in frost and snow and placed immediately in a hot stable and 
littered up to the knees are attacked by this complaint." I have never 
seen the disease occur under exactly similar circumstances, but am in- 
clined to believe that in these cases the disease was attributed to the wrong 
cause — the excitement, exhaustion, and concussion of the long ride being 
apparently entirely overlooked. Furthermore, if we consider the phys- 
ical conditions which must necessarily be present under the circum- 
stances, it seems inconsistent with our knowledge of the effects of heat 
and cold to believe that the very moderate temperature of stables and 
the heat-producing properties of betiding "up to the knees" could be pro- 
ductive of laminitis. Eather should we say that such favorable cir- 
cumstances would be conducive to opposite results. 

(5) Why it is that certain kinds of grain will cause laminitis does 
not seem to be clearly understood. Certainly they possess no specific 
action upon the laminae, for all animals are not alike affected, neither 
do they always produce these results in the same animal. In the case 
of some of these ailments, where their ingestion causes a strong ten- 
dency to indigestion, the consequent irritation of the alimentary canal 
may be so great as to warrant the belief that the laminae are affected 
through sympathy. In other instances there is no apparent interfer- 
ence with digestion, nor evidence of any irritation of the mucous mem- 
branes, yet the disease is in some manner dependent upon the food in 
question for its inception. Barley, wheat, and sometimes corn are the 
grains most prolific in the production of this disease. With some horses 
there appears to be a particular susceptibility to this influence of corn. In 
such instances the feeding of this grain for a few days will be followed 
by inflammation of the feet, lasting from a few days to two weeks time- 
In these animals, to all appearances healthy, the corn neither induces 
colic, indigestion, nor purging, and apparently no irritation whatever 
of the alimentary canal. 

(6) Fortunately purgative medicines but farely become the exciting 
cause of inflammation of the laminae. That it is then the result of a 
sympathetic action upon the part of the tissues affected is no doubt 
more than hypothetical, for when there is no derangement of the ali- 
mentary canal existing a dose of cathartic medicine will at times bring 
on severe laminitis, and that, too, before purgation commences. 

(7) Most if not all the older authorities were agreed that metastatic 
laminitis is a reality. That such a condition ever does exist outside 
the magination certainly awaits the proving. That laminitis may and 
ofttimes does exist as a concurrent disease with numerous others is un- 



405 

questionably true, but to believe an inflammation can be almost mo- 
mentarily transferred from one organ to another, no matter how remote, 
is to destroy all belief in our knowledge of the pathology of this com- 
plicated process. We do not pretend to deny that the induction of 
laminitis, daring the course of some other disease, may serve to arrest 
the further invasion of healthy tissue by the primary process, or that 
it may exert a remedial influence upon the first disease, but it can not 
and does not at once remove that inflammation and obliterate its lesions, 
for the products of any inflammation, be it never so simple, require a 
certain time for their removal, and it is impossible that, for instance, 
the products of inflamed lung tissue can be immediately removed and 
the inflammation in whole transferred to the laminae. Metastatic lam- 
initis, then, is nothing more nor less than concurrent laminitis, and as 
such presents little in anyway peculiar outside the imperfectly under- 
stood exciting cause, and the practitioner who allows the acute symp- 
toms of the laminitis to mislead him, simply because their severity has 
overshadowed those of the primary disease, may lose his case through 
unguarded subsequent treatment. This form of laminitis is by no means 
commonly met with, but when seen will usually be found in conjunc- 
tion with pneumonia, according to Touatt with inflammation of the 
bowels and eyes, and according to Law and Williams sometimes with 
bronchitis. 

Symptoms. — Laminitis is characterized by a congregation of symp- 
toms so well marked as scarcely to be misinterpreted by the most casual 
observer. They are nearly constant in their manifestations, modified 
by the number of feet affected, the cause which has induced the disease, 
the previous condition of the patient, and the various other influences 
which operate in all diseases to some extent. They may be divided into 
general symptoms, which are concomitants of all cases of the disease, 
subject to variations in degree only and special symptoms, or those 
which serve to determine the feet affected and the complications which 
may arise. 

General symptoms. — Usually the first symptoms that would indicate 
any definite obstruction to functional performance is the interference 
with locomotion produced by congestion of the sensitive membrane. 
Occasionally the other symptoms are presented first. With the devel- 
opment of the lameness the pulse will be found accelerated, full, hard, 
and striking the finger strongly ; the temperature soon rises several 
degrees above the normal, reaching sometimes 106° Fahr., although it 
generally ranges between 102£° and 105° Fahr. The respirations are 
rapid and panting in character, the nostrils being widely dilated, and 
the mucous membranes highly injected. The facial expression is anx- 
ious and indicative of the most acute suffering, while the body is more 
or less bedewed with sweat. At first there may be tendency to diar- 
rhea, or it may appear later, particularly as the result of the medicines 
used. The urine is high colored, scant in quantity, and of increased 



406 

specific gravity, owing to the water from the system being eliminated 
by the skin iusteacl of the kidneys. The appetite is impaired and some- 
times entirely lost, while the thirst is greatly increased. The affected 
feet are hot and dry to the touch. They are relieved as much as possi- 
ble from bearing weight. Rapping them with a hammer or compelling 
the animal to stand upon one affected member causes intense pain, 
while the artery at the fetlock throbs beneath the finger. 
1 Special symptoms. — Liability to affection varies in the different feet 
according to the exciting cause. Any one or more of the feet may be- 
come the subject of this disease, although it appears more often in the 
fore feet than in the hind ones, a fact owing to the difference of func- 
tion, i. e., that the fore feet are the basis of the columns of support, re- 
ceiving nearly all the body weight during progression and consequently 
most of the concussion, while the hind feet at such times becomes sim- 
ply the fulcra of the levers of progression, and are almost exempt from 
concussion. 

One foot. — Injuries and excessive functional performance are the 
causes of the disease in only one foot; here the general symptoms as a 
rule are not severe, there often being no loss of appetite and no unusual 
thirst, while the pulse, temperature and respiration remain about nor- 
mal. In these instances the weight of the body is early thrown upon 
the opposite foot and the affected one is extended, repeatedly raised 
from the floor and then carefully replaced. When made to move for- 
ward the lame foot is either carried in the air while progression is ac- 
complished by hopping with the healthy one, or else the heel of the first 
is placed upon the ground and receives the little weight thrown upon 
it while the sound limb is quickly advanced. Progression in a straight 
line is much more easily accomplished than in turning toward the lame 
. side. 

Both fore feet. — When both fore feet are affected the symptoms are 
-well marked. The lameness is excessive and the animal almost im- 
, movable. When standing the head hangs low down, or rests upon the 
imanger as a means of support and to relieve the feet ; the fore feet are 
well extended so that the weight is thrown upon the heels, where the 
tissues are least sensitive, least inflamed, and most capable of relief 
from free effusion. The hind feet are brought forward beneath the 
body to receive as much weight as possible, thereby relieving the dis- 
eased ones. If progression is attempted, which rarely happens volun- 
tarily during the first three or four days, it is accomplished with very 
great pain and lameness at the starting, which usually subsides to an ex- 
tent after a few minutes' exercise. During this exercise, if the animal 
happens to step upon a small stone or other hard substance, he stumbles 
painfully on the other foot and is excessively lame in the offended 
member for a number of steps, owing to the acute pain which pressure 
upon the sole causes in the tissues beneath. The manner of the pro- 
egression is pathognomonic of the complaint. Sometimes the affected 



407 

feet are simultaneously raised from the ground (the hind ones sustain- 
ing the weight), then advanced a short distance and carefully replaced, 
while at almost the same moment the hind ones are quickly shuffled 
forward near to the center of gravitation. 

In other instances one foot at a time is advanced and placed with the 
heel upon the ground in the same careful manner, all causes of concus- 
sion being carefully avoided. In attempting to back the animal he is 
found to be almost stationary, simply swaying the body back on the 
haunches and elevating the toes of the diseased feet as they rest upon 
their heels. In attempting to turn either to the right or left he allows 
his head to be drawn to the one side to its full extent before moving, 
then makes his hind feet the axis around which the forward ones de- 
scribe a shuffling circle. 

In a majority of cases of laminitis in the fore feet the animal persists 
in standing until he is nearly recovered. In other cases he as persist- 
ently lies, standing only when necessity seems to compel it, and then 
for as short a time as possible. If the recumbent position is once as- 
sumed the relief experienced from a removal of the weight of the body 
oif the inflamed tissues tempts the patient to seek it again, and so we 
often find him down a greater part of the time. But this is not true of 
all cases, for sometimes he will make the experiment, then cautiously 
guard against a repetition. Even in those cases of enforced recumbency, 
he ofttimes takes advantage of the first opportunity and gets upon his 
feet, doggedly remaining there until again laid upon his side by his 
attendants. How to explain this diversity of action I do not know, for 
theoretically the recumbent position is the only appropriate one, except 
when complications exist, and the one which should give the most com- 
fort, yet it is rejected by very many patients and no doubt for some 
good reason. It has been suggested as an explanation that when the 
animal gets upon his feet after lying for a time the suffering is so greatly 
augmented that the memory of this experience deters him from an 
attempted repetition. If this were true, the horse with the first attack 
of this disease must necessarily make the experiment before knowing 
the after effects of lying down, yet many remain standing without even 
an attempt at gaining this experimental knowledge. 

The most favored position of the animal when down is on the broad- 
side, with the feet and legs extending. While in this position the gen- 
eral symptoms greatly subside; the respirations and pulse become 
almost normal; the temperature falls and the perspiration dries. It is 
mostly with difficulty that he is made to rise, and when he attempts it 
gets up rapidly and " all in a heap," as it were, shifting quickly from 
one to the other foot until they become accustomed again to the weight 
thrown upon them. Occasionally a patient will get up like a cow, rising 
upon the hind feet first. Although enforced exercise relieves to some 
extent the soreness, it is but temporary, for after a few minutes' rest it 
returns again with all its former severity. 



408 

Both hind feet. — When ouly both hind feet are affected, they are, while 
standing, maintained in the same position as when only the fore ones 
are the subjects of the disease, bnt with an entirely different object in 
view. Instead of being here to receive weight, they are so advanced in 
that the heels may receive whatever weight is, from necessity, imposed 
on them, the fore feet being at the same time placed well back beneath 
the body, where they become the main sapports, the animal standing, 
as Williams describes it, " all of a heap." 

Progression is even more difficult now than when the disease is con- 
fiued to the anterior extremities. The fore feet are dubiously advanced- 
a short distance and the hind ones are then brought forward with a 
kind of a kangaroo hop, which results in an apparent loss of equilibrium 
which the animal is a few moments in regaining. The general symp- 
toms, or in other words the degree of suffering, seem more severe in these 
cases than where the disease affects the fore feet alone. The standing 
position is not often maintained, the patient seeking relief in recum- 
bency. This fact is easily understood when we consider how cramped 
and unnatural is the position he assumes while standing, and if it were 
maintained for any considerable length of time would no doubt excite 
the disease in the fore feet, as explained by D'Arboval. 

All four feet. — Laminitis of all four feet is but uncommonly met with. 
The author has seen but three such cases. In all these the position as- 
sumed was nearly normal, all the feet being slightly advanced, and first 
one then another momentarily raised from the ground and carefully re- 
placed, this action being kept up almost continually during the time 
the animal remained standing. The suffering in these cases is most 
acute, the appetite is lost, and although the patient lies most of the 
time the temperature remains too high ; the pulse and respirations.are 
greatly accelerated, the body covered with sweat, and bed sores are 
unpleasant accompaniments. 

Course. — The course which laminitis takes varies greatly in different 
cases, being influenced more or less by the exciting cause, the animal's 
previous condition, the acuteness of the attack, and the subsequent 
treatment. The first symptoms rarely exhibit themselves while the an- 
imal is at his work, although we will occasionally see the gait impaired 
by stumbling, the body covered with a profuse sweat, and the respira- 
tion become blowing in character as premonitions of the oncoming dis- 
ease, but as a rule nothing is noted amiss with the animal until he has 
stood for some time after coming in from work, when, in attempting to 
move him, he is found very stiff. Like all congestions the early symp- 
toms usually develop rapidly, yet this is not always the case, for in 
some instauces there appears to be no well-defined period of congestion, 
the disease seemingly commencing at a point and gradually spreading 
until a large territory is involved in the morbid process. 

Simple congestion. — Those cases of simple congestion of the laminfe, 
which we erroneously call laminitis, are rapidly developed, the symp- 



409 

toms being but moderately severe and from one to three days required 
for recovery. There are no structural changes here and but a moder- 
ate exudate, which is rapidly reabsorbed, leaving the parts j>ecisely in 
the came condition as they were previous to the attack. If the congest- 
ion has been excessive a rupture of some of the capillaries will be found, 
a condition more apt to obtaiu where the animal is made to continue 
work after a development of symptoms has begun. 

True, the majority of these last-described cases prove to be the lami- 
nitis in fact, yet at times the congestion will pass away and theextrav- 
asated blood be absorbed without inflammation supervening to an ex- 
tent sufficient to warrant us calling it laminitis. The seat of greatest 
congestion will always be found in the neighborhood of the toe, because 
of the increased vascularity of that part, aud although at times it is lim- 
ited to the podophyllous tissue alone, any or all parts of the keratogen- 
ous membrane may be affected by the congestion and followed finally 
by inflammation. 

Acute. — In the acute form of laminitis the symptoms may all develop 
rapidly, or it may commence by the appearance of a little soreness of 
the feet during progression, which in twenty-four or forty-eight hours' 
time has passed into a well-marked case. This peculiarity of develop- 
ment is due to one of two causes. Either the congestion is general, but 
takes place slowly, or else it begins in one or more points and gradually 
spreads throughout the laininse. These acute cases generally run their 
course in from a few days to two weeks or more time. Usually a cul- 
mination of the symptoms is reached if the patient is properly treated 
in from three to five days ; then evidences of recovery are discernable 
in favorable cases. The lameness improves, the other symptoms grad- 
ually subside, and eventually health is regained. It is in these acute 
cases that a strong tendency to disorganization of a destructive char- 
acter exists, and hence it is we see so many recover imperfectly with 
marked structural changes permanently remaining. 

Subacute. — Subacute laminitis is most often seen as a termination 
of the acute form, although at times it exists independent of or pre- 
cedes an acute attack. It is characterized by the mildness of its symp- 
tems, slow course, and moderate tissue changes. It may be present 
for a long time before any pathologhical lesions result other than those 
found in the acute form, and when these changes do take place they 
should rather be viewed as complications. 

Chronic. — Chronic laminitis is a term used by many to designate any 
of the sequelae of the acute and subacute forms of this disease. Pure 
chronic inflammation of the laminae is not very commonly met with, but 
is most frequent in horses that have long done fast track work. They 
have " fever in the feet " at all times and are continually sore, both con- 
ditions being aggravated by work. Like chronic inflammation of other 
parts there is a strong tendency here to the development of new con- 
nective tissues, which, by its pressure u|)on the blood vessels, interferes 



410 

with nutrition. Wasting of the coffin hone and inflammation of its cov- 
ering with caries is not unusual. The continued fever and impaired 
function of secretion result in the production of horn deficient in elas- 
ticity, somewhat spongy in character, and inclined to crumble. In 
others of these cases of "soreness" in horses used to hard work, there 
is evident weakness of the coats of the vessels brought on by repeated 
functional exhaustion. Here slight work acts as an exciting cause of 
congestion, which results in serious effusion and temporary symptoms 
similar to those of chronic laminitis. 

Complications. — Complications concurrent with or supervening upon 
laminitis are frequent and varied, and are often dependent upon causes 
not fully understood. 

Excessive purgation is one of the simplest of these, and not usually 
attended with dangerous consequences. It rarely occurs unless induced 
by the exhibition of a purgative, and the excessive action of the medicine 
is probably to be explained upon the theory that the mucous membrane 
sympathizes with the diseased laminae, is irritable, and readily becomes 
overexcited. The discharges are thin and watery, sometimes offen- 
sively odorous, and occasionally persist in spite of treatment. It may 
prove disastrous to the welfare of the patient by the rapid exhaustion 
which it causes, preventing resolution of the laminitis, and may even 
cause death. 

Septicemia and pyc&mia. — Septicaemia or Pyaemia are unusual com- 
plications and are seen only in the most severe cases, where bed-sores 
are present or suppuration of the laminae results. They die, as a rule, 
within three days after showing signs of the complication. 

Pneumonia — the so-called metastatic — needs no special consideration, 
for in its lesions and symptoms it does not differ from ordinary pneu- 
monia, although it may be overlooked entirely by the practitioner. Ex- 
aminations of the chest in laminitis should be made every day, so as to 
detect the disease at its onset and render proper aid. 

Sidebones. — A rapid development of sidebones is one of the compli- 
cations, or perhaps better, a sequel of laminitis not often met with in 
practice. Here the inflammatory process extends to the lateral carti- 
lages, with a strong tendency to calcification. The deposition of the lime 
salts is sometimes most rapid, so that the " bones " are developed in a 
few weeks' time ; in other instances they are deposited slowly and their 
growth is not noted until long after the subsidence of the laminitis, 
so that the exciting cause is not suspected. This change in the carti- 
lages may commence as early as the first week of the laminitis, and 
although the trouble in the laminae is removed in the course of a fort- 
night the symptoms do not entirely subside, the animal still retaining 
the shuffling gait, while the sidebones continue to grow and the patient 
usually remains quite lame. This alteration of the cartilages generally 
prevents the patient recovering his natural gait, because of the perma- 
nent impairment of function induced, and the practitioner receives un- 



411 

just censure for a condition of affairs be could neither foresee nor pre- 
vent. 

The laminitic process also occasionally extends to the covering of the 
coronet bone, or at least concurrent with and subsequent to laminitis 
the development of " low ringbone " is seen, and it is apparently de- 
pendent upon the disease of the laininge for its exciting - cause. The 
impairment of function and consequent symptoms are much less marked 
here than in sidebones. The coronet remains hot and sensitive and 
somewhat thickened after the laminitis subsides, and a little lameness 
is present. This lameness persists and the deposits of new bone may 
readily be detected. 

Suppuration of the sensitive membrane is a somewhat common com- 
plication, and even when present in its most limited form is always a 
serious matter; but when it becomes extensive, and especially where 
the suppurative process extends to the periosteum, the results are apt 
to be fatal. When suppuration occurs the exudation does not appear 
to be excessive, but is rich in leucocytes and seems to have caused a 
detachment of the sensitive tissues from the horn prior to the forma- 
tion of pus in some instances, while in others the tissues are still at- 
tached to the horn and the suppuration takes place in the deeper tis- 
sues. 

Limited suppuration may take place in any part of the sensitive tis- 
sues of the foot during laminitis, and may ultimately be reabsorbed 
instead of being discharged upon the surface, but generally the process 
begins in the neighborhood of the toe and spreads backward and up- 
ward towards the coronet, where it is seen separating the horn from 
the coronary band at the quarters. At the same time it is spreading 
over the sole and eventually the entire hoof is loosened and finally 
sloughs away-, leaving the tissues beneath entirely unprotected. 

In other instances, and these are generally the cases not considered 
unusually severe, the suppuration begins at the coronary band. The 
suppuration extends but a short distance in the tissue, yet serves to 
destroy the patient by separating the hoof from the coronary band upon 
which it depends for support and growth. Iu this form of the suppura- 
tive process it is usually seen beginning in front, for it is this part of 
the coronary band that is always most actively affected with inflamma- 
tion, and consequently it is here that impairments first occur. Suppura- 
tion of the sensitive sole is more common than of the sensitive laininse 
and coronary band. It is present in the majority of cases where there 
is a dropping of the coffin bone, and in other instances where the effu- 
sion at this point is so great as to arrest the production of horn and un- 
cover the sensitive tissues. Except when the result of injury it begins 
at the toe and spreads backward, and if not relieved by opening the sole 
escapes at the heel. Suppuration of the sole is much less serious than 
where present in other parts of the foot. 

If the acute constitutional symptoms developed from this sloughing 



412 

of the foot do not result in death, a new hoof of very imperfect horn 
may be developed after a time, but unless the animal is to be kept for 
breeding purposes alone the foot will ever be useless for work and death 
should relieve the suffering. When only the sole sloughs recovery 
takes place with proper treatment. 

Peditis. — This is the term which Williams applies to that serious 
complication of laminitis where not only the laminae but the periosteum 
and the coffin bone are also the subjects of the inflammatory process. 
Neither is this all, for in some of these cases of peditis acute inflamma- 
tion of the " coffin joint" is present, and occasionally suppuration of 
the joint. A mild form of periostitis, in which the exudation is in the 
outer or looser layer of the periosteum only, is a more common condi- 
tion than is recognized by practitioners generally, and the intimate 
contiguity of structures is the predisposing cause, the disease either 
spreading from the original seat, or the complication occurs as one of 
the primary results of the exciting cause. In the severer cases where 
the exudate separates the periosteum from the bone, suppuration, gan- 
grene, and superficial caries are common results; where infiltration of 
the bone tissues is rapid the blood supply is cut off by the pressure 
upon the vessels and death of the coffin bone ensues. Grave consti- 
tutional symptoms mark these changes and soon prove fatal. 

In the mild cases of periostitis it is by no means easy to determine 
its presence positively, for there are no special symptoms by which it 
may be distinguished from pure laminitis. In the majority of the acute 
cases, though, which show no signs of improvement by the fifth to sev- 
enth day, it is safe to suspect periostitis is present, particularly if the 
coronets are very hot, the pulse remaining full and hard, and the lame- 
ness acute. In the fortunately rare cases where the bone is affected 
with inflammation and suppuration, the agony of the patient is intense; 
he occupies the recumbent position almost continually, never standing 
for more than a few minutes at a time, suffers from the most careful 
handling of the affected feet; maintains a rapid pulse and respiration, 
high temperature, loss of appetite, and great thirst. It is in these cases 
the patient continually grows worse, and the appearance of suppuration 
at the top of the hoof in about two weeks after the inception of the 
disease proves the inefficiency of any treatment that may have been 
adopted and the hopelessness of the case. These patients die usually 
between the tenth and twentieth days, either from exhaustion or pyaemic 
infections. 

Gangrene occurs in the periosteum as the result of excessive detach 
ment from the bone, combined with compression from an overprofuse 
exudate. Other parts of the sensitive tissues are subject to the sauie 
fate occasionally, from this last-named cause, and at times large terri- 
tories will be found dead. 

Pumiced sole is that condition in which the horny sole in the neigh- 
borhood of the toe readily crumbles away and leaves the sensitive tis- 



413 

sues more or less exposed. It is not confined to being a complication 
of laminitis, but may be seen whenever the necessary conditions for 
inducing it are present. Williams has described the horny-tissue un- 
der these circumstances as being "weak, cheesy, or spongy, like mac- 
erated horn, or even grumous," and this certainly conveys a good idea 
of its appearance and general characteristics. This crumbling horn 
when critically examined shows almost an entire absence of the cohe- 
sive matter which unites the healthy fibers, while the fibers themselves 
are irregular aud granular in appearance. Pumiced sole depends upon 
an impairment of the horn-secreting powers of the sensitive sole, or 
upon a separation occurring between the horny and soft tissues which 
maintain its vitality. Tbe normal sole physiologically maintains a 
proper thinness by crumbling off in scales as it passes beyond the lite- 
maintaining influence of the producing tissues, and anything which 
prevents, suspends, or destroys this influence causes the crumbling proc- 
ess to become excessive. 

Punctured wounds of the feet, whe re accompanied by any consider- 
able destruction of the soft or horn-secreting tissues, present the same 
peculiarities in this respect in the immediate neighborhood of the in- 
jury. Bruises of the sole are occasionally followed by this change in 
the horn where the exudation has been excessive and has separated it 
from the living tissues. True, in these cases we rarely see the soft tis- 
sues laid bare, for the reason that new horn is constantly secreted and 
replaces that undergoing the process of disintegration. 

Laminitis presents three different conditions under which pumiced 
sole may appear : First, where free exudation separates the horn from 
the other tissues, or where the process of inflammation arrests the pro- 
duction of horn by impairing or destroying the horn-secreting mem- 
brane: secondly, where depression of the coffin bone causes pressure 
upon and arrests the formation of horn ; and, thirdly, where the eleva- 
tion of the sole compresses the soft tissues against the pedal bone and 
induces the same condition. Pumiced sole, as it results from simple 
exudation and separation of tissues, is of no importance, for the reason 
given above in connection with bruises ; but where suppuration occurs 
iu restricted portions of the foot in conjunction with laminitis it always 
lays bare the tissues beneath and impairs the animal's value tempora- 
rily. In these cases recovery takes place after a few weeks' time by the 
tissues horning over, as iu injuries which have been attended with the 
same process. Depression of the coffin bone is not a sufficient cause 
within itself to cause pumiced sole, for if the relative change in the 
bone takes place slowly, or if the horn is thin, the sole becomes con- 
vex from the gradual pressure and the soft tissues adapt themselves to 
the change without having their function materially impaired. But 
when the dropping is sudden and the soft tissues entirely destroyed, 
the horn rapidly crumbles away and the toe of the bone comes through. 
In many of these cases the soft tissues remain uncovered for months, 
and when they eventually become covered it is with a thin, slightly ad- 



414 

herent horn that bears but little or no wear. The sole being now eon- 
vex the diseased tissues are compelled to bear unusual weight by com- 
ing in contact with the ground, and hence it is these animals are gen- 
erally incurable cripples. In the majority of cases where the sole is 
raised to meet the pedal bone and pumiced sole occurs, it is due not to 
pressure of the bone from within (for the tissues are capable of adapt- 
ing themselves to the gradual change), but to impaired vitality of the 
sensitive tissues from the inflammation and the constant concussion and 
pressure applied from without during progression. Added to this is to 
be considered the paring away of the horn by the smith when applying 
the shoe, thereby keeping the sole at this point too thin. 

Turning up of the toe. — In many cases of laminitis which have be- 
come chronic it is found that the toe of the foot turns up, and that the 
heels are longer than natural, while the whole hoof next to the coro- 
nary band is circled with ridges like the horn of a ram. Even in other 
cases where recovery has taken place, and in other diseases than 1am- 
iuitis, these may be found in the wall of the foot, but in these cases the 
ridges are equally distant from each other all around the foot, while in 
turning up of the toe the ridges are wide apart at the heels and close 
together in front, as seen in the figure (Plate xxxi, Fig. 4). These 
ridges are produced by periods of interfeience with the growth of horn 
alternating with periods during which a normal or nearly normal 
growth takes place. When the toe turns up it does so because the cor- 
onary band in front produces horn very slowly, while at the heels it 
grows much faster. 

Animals affected with pumiced foot and turning up of the toe during 
progression always place the abnormally long heel first upon the ground, 
not because the heel is too long, nor as in acute or subacute laminitis 
to relieve the paiu, but for the simple reason that the animal carries the 
leg forward with the column of bones in the normal position, and at- 
tempting to keep them so the heel first comes in contact with the 
ground, and he then knuckles over at the fetlock in proportion to the 
amount of foot deformity present as he brings the toe to the surface. 

The pain and impai rment of function in these cases always result 
in marked atrophy of the mus cles of the forearm and shoulder, and to 
some extent of the pectorals, while the position of the fore feet ad- 
vances the scapula joints so far forward as to cause a somewhat sunken 
appearance of the chest in front, which the laity recognize as a peculiar 
form of the disease popularly designated as " chest founder." 

Regarding the presence of inflammation during this process, there is 
no doubt a chronic form exists along time after these lesions commence, 
yet it may in time subside and leave the feet free from fever while the 
other changes still go on. 

The lesions of turning up of the toe are permanent, and are withal the 
most interesting pathologically of all the complications of laminitis. 

Treatment. — The treatment of laminitis is probably more varied than 
in other disease, and yet in spite of it a large number of cases recover 



415 

for even the poorest practitioner. Since there are two objects to be at 
taiued in treatment — prevention and remedy — the matter will be con- 
sidered under the head of prevention and curative measures. 

Prevention. — To guard against and prevent disease, or to render an 
unpreventable attack less serious than it otherwise would be, is the high- 
est practice of the healing art. In a disease so prone to result from 
the simplest causes as seen in laminitis, and especially when the sound- 
est judgment may not be able to determine the extent of the disease- 
resisting powers of the tissues which are liable to be affected, or of what 
shall in every instance constitute an over-excitement, it is not strange 
that horse owners find themselves in trouble from unintentional trans- 
gression. If the disease was dependent upon specific causes, or if the 
stability of the tissues were of a fixed or more nearly determinate quality, 
some measures might be instituted that would prove generally prevent- 
ive. But when we recall the fact that predisposing causes are so preva- 
lent and often can not be remedied, that what is but gentle work in one 
instance may incite disease in another, that what is food to-day may 
to-morrow prove disastrous to health, and that necessary medical inter- 
ference, no matter how judicious, may cause a more serious complaint 
than that which was being treated, the obstacles to contend with become 
plain. Notwithstanding these difficulties there are some general rules 
to be observed that will in part serve to prevent the development of an 
unusual number of cases. In the first place all the predisposing causes 
named must be removed where possible, and when this is impossible 
unusual care must be taken not to bring into operation an exciting 
cause. Fat animals should, under no circumstances, have hard work, 
and if the weather is warm or the variation of temperature great they 
should have but slow, gentle labor until they become inured to it, the 
tissues hardened and their excitability reduced to a minimum. Green 
horses should always have moderate work for the same reason, and par- 
ticularly when changed from the farm and dirt roads to city pavements. 
The increased concussion, changed hygienic conditions and artificial 
living, readily become active causes of the disease under these circum- 
stances. Army horses just out of winter quarters, track horses with 
insufficient preparation, and farmers' horses put to work in the spring, 
are among the most susceptible classes, and must be protected by work 
that is easy and gradual. If long marches or drives are imperative, 
then the incumbrances must be light as possible and the journey inter- 
spersed with frequent rests, for this allows the larninse to regain their 
impaired functional activity and thereby to withstand much more work 
without danger. And, furthermore, it permits an early detection of an 
oncoming attack; in any case prevents working after the disease be- 
gins and renders subsequent medication much more effective by cutting 
the process short at the stage of congestion. 

All animals when resting immediately after work should be protected 
from cold air or draughts. If placed in a stable that is warm and with- 
out draught no covering is necessary ; under opposite conditions blankets 



416 

should be used until the excitement and exhaustion of the labor per- 
formed have entirely passed away. It is still better that all animals 
coming in warm from work be "cooled out" by slow walking until the 
perspiration has dried and the circulation and respiration returned to 
the normal. Animals stopped on the road even for a few moments 
time should always be protected from rapid change of temperature by 
appropriate clothing. If it can be avoided horses that are working 
should never be driven or ridden through a stream or pool of water. 
Where necessary they should be cooied off before passing through, aud 
then kept exercising until completely dried. The same rule is to be ob- 
served with regard to washing the legs in cold water when the animal 
is just in from work, for, although it is practiced extensively and usually 
with impunity, occasionally it proves the cause of a most acute attack 
of this disease. Regarding shoeing as a predisposing cause, unusual 
changes in the manner of applying the shoe should not be hastily made. 

If a plane shoe has been worn, high heels or toes must not he sub- 
stituted at once, but the change, if necessary, should gradually be 
made, so that the different tissues may adapt themselves to the change 
of functional performance they are called upon to bear. If, on the other 
hand, such changes are imperative, as is sometimes the case, then the 
work must be so reduced in quantity and quality that it can not prove ex- 
citant of the disease. Laminitis from the effects of purgative medicines 
is a condition which can scarcely be guarded against unless we discard 
entirely this useful class of medicines. I can not determine from the 
few cases in which I have seen this unhappy result of a purgative that 
there are any conditions of the system present that would warn us of 
danger in this direction. The disease does not seem to have any de- 
pendence for inception in such cases upon the size of the purgative, 
the length of time before purgation begins, or the activity and severity 
with which the remedy acts. Moderate doses of medicines known to 
have unusual irritating effects on the alimentary canal should be used 
only when necessity demands it. 

Experience alone will determine what animals are liable to suffer 
from this disease through the influence of the different foods. When an 
attack can with any certainty be ascribed to any particular food it 
should ever be withheld unless in the smallest quantities. Horses that 
have never been fed upon Indian corn should receive but a little at a 
time at first, and always mixed with bran, oats, or other food, until it 
has been determined that no danger exists. Corn is much more liable 
to cause laminitis in warm than in cold weather, and for this reason it 
should always be fed with care during spring and summer months. 

When an animal is excessively lame in one foot the other or opposite 
member should have the shoe early removed and cold water frequently 
applied. At the same time the slings should be used if the subject re- 
mains standing. Horses should under no circumstances be overworked; 
to guard against this, previous work, nature of roads, state of weather, 
and various other influences must be carefully noted. Watering while 



417 

warm is a pernicious habit, and unless the animal is accustomed to it 
is apt to result in some disorder, ofttimes in laminitis. 

Curative measures. — In cases of simple passive congestion of the lam- 
inae, the body should be warmly clothed and warm drinks given to 
draw the blood in iucreased quantity to these parts so as to direct it 
from the feet ; at the same time the feet should be placed in warm water 
so as to increase the return flow of blood. In the course of half an hour 
the feet may be changed to cold water, which serves as a tonic to all the 
tissues, and kept there until recovery is completed. If the constitutional 
symptoms demand it, diuretics should be given. Half-ounce doses of 
saltpeter, three times a day in the water, answers the purpose. In cases 
of active congestion the warm foot baths should be omitted and cold ones 
substituted from the commencement. Subacute laminitis demands the 
same treatment with laxatives if there is constipation, and theaddition of 
low-heeled shoes. The diuretics may need to be continued for some time 
and their frequency increased. Eegarding acute Laminitis, what has 
been called the "American treatment " is so simple and withal so efficient 
that it is to be remarked other countries have never adopted it. Since 
the disease is a local one, unquestionably the remedies used should be 
applied in the immediate neighborhood of the affected parts, or if drugs 
are administered internally, they should have some specific localized 
action. And such are the claims made for the above-named method of 
treatment. It consists solely in the exhibition of large doses of nitrate of 
potash and the continued application to the feet and ankles of cold water. 

Three to 4 ounces of saltpeter in a pint of water, repeated every six 
hours, is the proper dose, and the laminitis frequently subsides inside of 
a week's time. These large doses may be continued for a week without 
danger; never under any circumstances have I seen the kidneys irri- 
tated to excess or other unfavorable effects produced. 

The feet should either be kept in a tub of water at a temperature of 
45° to 50° Fahr. (it may be lowered if desired), or if the animal is lying 
down swabs should be used and wet every half hour with the cold 
water. The water not only keeps the horn soft and moist, but acts 
directly upon the inflamed tissues by reducing their temperature, thereby 
increasing their vitality and disease-resisting qualities, and at the same 
time by toning up the coats of the blood vessels diminishes the supply 
of blood and limits the exudation. Furthermore, cold has also an anes- 
thetic effect upon the diseased tissues and relieves the pain. 

Aconite may be given in conjunction with niter where the heart is 
greatly excited aud beating strongly. Ten-drop doses repeated every 
two hours for twenty-four hours is sufficient. The practice of giving 
cathartics is dangerous, for it may excite superpurgation. Usually the 
niter has sufficienteffectupon the, constipation to relieve it, yet if it should 
prove obstinate laxatives may be carefully given. Bleeding, both gen- 
eral and local, should be guarded against. The shoes should always be 
early removed and the soles left unpared. 
11035 27 



418 

Paring of the soles presents two objections. First, while it may 
temporarily relieve the pain by relieving pressure, it at the same time 
allows of greater exudation, which may more than counterbalance the 
good effects. Secondly, it makes the feet tender and subject to bruises 
when the animal again goes to work. The shoes should be replaced wheu 
convalescence sets in and the animal is ready to take exercise. Exer- 
cise should never be enforced uutil the inflammation has subsided, for 
although it temporarily relieves the paiu and soreness, it serves to main- 
tain continued irritation, increases the exudation, and prolongs the 
recovery. 

If, at the end of the fifth or sixth day, prominent symptoms of re- 
covery are not apparent, apply a stiff blister of cantharides arouudthe 
coronet and omit the niter for about forty-eight hours. As soon as the 
blister has drawn well the feet may again receive wet swabs. If one 
blister does not suffice to remove the soreness; as is the case some- 
times, especially where periostitis is present, it may be repeated, or the 
actual cautery applied. The same treatment should be adopted where 
side bones form or inflammation of the coronet bone ensues. When the 
sole breaks through and exposes the coffin bone and soft tissues, the 
feet must be carefully shod with thin heels and thick toes where there 
is any tendency to walking on the heels, and the sole well protected 
with appropriate dressing and pressure over the exposed parts. When 
there is turning up of the toe, blistering of the coronet in front, care- 
fully avoiding the quarters and heels, sometimes stimulates the growth 
of horn, but as a rule judicious shoeing is the only treatment that will 
keep the animal in a condition to do light, slow work. 

Where suppuration of the laminae is profuse it is better to destroy 
your patient at once and relieve his suffering, but if the suppuration is 
limited to a small extent of tissue, especially of the sole, treatment as 
in acute cases may iuduce recovery and should always be tried. If 
from bed-sores or other causes septicemia or pyseinia is feared, the 
bisulphite of soda in half-ounce doses may be given in conjunction 
with tonics and other treatment indicated in these diseases. Regard- 
ing enforced recumbency I doubt the propriety of insisting on it in 
the majority of cases, for I think as a rule the animal assumes what- 
ever position gives comfort. There can be no doubt that recumbency 
diminishes the amount of blood sent to the feet, and that the suffering 
is greatly relieved while in this position, so that the experiment of 
forcing the patient to lie down may be tried, yet should not be renewed 
if it thereafter persists in standing. 

Where the animal stands, or where constant lying indicates it, to pre- 
vent extensive sores the patient should be placed in slings, and the 
weight supported in this manner to the relief of the feet. When all 
four feet are affected it may be impossible to use slings, for the reason 
that the patient refuses to support any of his weight on his feet and sim- 
ply hangs in them. Lastly, convalescent cases must not be returned 
to work too early, else permanent recovery may never be effected. 




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SOUND AND CONTRACTED FEET. 



DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 



By JAMES LAW, F. R. C. S. V. S., 

Professor of Veterinary Science, etc., Cornell University. 



As we find them described in systematic works, the diseases of the 
skin are very numerous and complex, which may be largely accounted 
for by the fact that the cutaneous covering is exposed to view at all 
points, so that shades of difference in inflammatory and other diseased 
processes are easily seen and distinguished from each other. In the 
horse the hairy covering serves to some exteut to mask the symptoms, 
and hence the nonprofessional man is tempted to apply the term 
u mange " to all alike, and it is only a step further to apply the same 
treatment to all these widely different disorders. Yet even in the hairy 
quadruped the distinction can be made in a way which can not be done 
in disorders of that counterpart and prolongation of the skin — the 
mucous membrane, which lines the air passages, the digestive organs, 
the urinary, and generative apparatus. Diseased processes, therefore, 
which in these organs it might be difficult or impossible to distinguish 
from each other, can usually be separated and recognized when appear- 
ing in the skin. 

Nor is this differentiation unimportant. The cutaneous covering pre- 
sents such an extensive surface for the secretion of cuticular scales, 
hairs, horn, sebaceous matter, sweat, and other excretory matters, that 
any extensive disorder in its functions may lead to serious internal 
disease and death. Again, the intimate nervous sympathy of different 
points of the skin with particular internal organs renders certain 
skin disorders causative of internal disease and certain internal dis- 
eases causative of affections of the skin. The mere painting of the skin 
with an impermeable coating of glue is speedily fatal ; a cold draught 
striking on the chest causes inflammation of the lungs or pleura ; a skin 
eruption speedily follows certain disorders of the stomach, the liver, the 
kidneys, or even the lungs ; simple burns of the skin cause inflamma- 
tions of internal organs, and inflammations of such organs cause in their 
turn eruptions on the skin. The relations — nervous, secretory, and 
absorptive — between the skin and internal organs are most extensive 
and varied, and therefore a visible disorder in the skin may point at 

419 



420 

once and specifically to a particular fault in diet, to an injudicious use 
of cold water when the system is heated, to a fault in drainage, venti- 
lation or lighting of the stables, to indigestion, to liver disease, to 
urinary disorder, etc. 

STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN. 

The skin consists primarily of two parts: (1), the superficial nonvas- 
cular (without blood vessels) layer, the cuticle or epidermis; and (2), the 
deep vascular (with blood vessels) layer, the corium,dermisor true skin. 

The cuticle is made up of cells placed side by side and more or less 
modified in shape by their mutual compression and by surface evapora- 
tion and drying. The superficial stratum consists of the cells dried in 
the form of scales, which fall off continually and form dandruff. The 
deep stratum (the mucous layer) is formed of somewhat rounded cells 
with large central nuclei, and in colored skin containing numerous pig- 
ment granules. These cells have prolongations or branches by which 
they communicate with each other and with the superficial layer of 
cells in the true skin beneath. Through these they receive nutrient 
liquidsfor their growth and increase, and through these liquids absorbed 
by the skin, may be passed on into the vessels of the true skin beneath. 
The living matter in the cells exercises an equally selective power on 
what they shall take up for their own nourishment and on what they 
shall admit into the circulation from without. Thus, certain agents 
like iodine and belladonna are readily admitted, whereas others, like 
arsenic, are excluded b}* the sound unbroken epidermis. Between the 
deep and superficial layers of the epidermis there is a thin translucent 
layer (septum lucidum), consisting of a double stratum of cells, and 
forming a medium of transition from the deep spheroidal to the super- 
ficial scaly cuticle. 

The true shin or dermis has a framework of interlacing bundles of 
white and yellow fibers, large and coarse in the deeper layers, and fine 
in the superficial where they approach the cuticle. Between the fibrous 
bundles are left interspaces which, like the bundles, become finer as 
they approach the surface, and inclose cells, vessels, nerves, glands, 
gland ducts, hairs, and in the deeper layers fat. 

The superficial layer of the dermis is formed into a series of minute 
conical elevations or papilla, projecting into the deep portion of the 
cuticle, from which they are separated by a very fine transparent mem- 
brane. This papillary layer is very richly supplied with capillary blood 
vessels and nerves, and is at once the seat of acute sensation and the 
point from which the nutrient liquid is supplied to the cells of the 
cuticle above. It is also at this point that the active changes of in- 
flammation are especially concentrated; it is the immediately super- 
posed cell layers (mucous), that become morbidly increased in the early 
stages of inflammation ; it is on the surface of the papillary layer that 
the liquid is thrown out which raises the cuticle in the form of a blister, 
and it is at this point mainly that pus forms iu the ordinary pustule. 



421 

The fibrous "bundles of the true skin contain plain muscular fibers, 
which are not controlled by the will, but contract under the influence 
of cold and under certain nervous influences, as in some skin diseases 
and in the chill of a fever, and lead to contraction, tightening, or cor- 
rugation of the skin, contributing to produce the " hidebound " of the 
horseman. Other minute muscular filaments are extended from thesur- 
face of the dermis to the hair follicle on the side to which the hair is in- 
clined, and under the same stimulating influences produce that erection 
of the hair which is familiarly known as " staring coat." Besides these, 
the horse's skin is furnished with an expansion of red voluntary mus- 
cle, firmly attached to the fibrous bundles, and by which the animal 
can not only dislodge insects and other irritants, but even shake off the 
harness. This fleshy envelope covers the sides of the trunk and the 
lower portions of the neck and head, the parts unprotected by the mane 
and tail, and serves to throw the skin of these parts into puckers or 
ridges in certain irritating skin diseases. 

The hairs are cuticular products growing from an enlarged papilla 
lodged in the depth of a follicle or sack, hollowed out in the skin and 
extending to its deepest layers. The hair follicle is lined by cells of 
epidermis, which at the bottom are reflected on the papilla and become 
the root of the hair. The hair itself is formed of the same kind of cells 
firmly adherent to each other by a tough intercellular substance, and 
overlapping each other like slates on a roof in a direction towards the 
free end. 

The sebaceous glands are branching tubes ending in follicles or sacks 
and opening into the hair follicles, lined by a very vascular fibrous net- 
work representing the dermis, and an internal layer of cells represent- 
ing the mucous layer of the cuticle. Their oily secretion gives gloss to 
the hair and prevents its becoming dry and brittle, and keeps the skin 
soft and supple, protecting it at once against undue exhalation of water 
and undue absorption when immersed in that medium. Beside those 
connected with the hair follicles there are numerous isolated sebaceous 
glands, opening directly on the surface of the skin, producing a some- 
what thicker and more odorous secretion. These are found in large 
numbers in the folds of the skin, where chafing would be likely if the 
surface were dry, as on the sheath, scrotum, mammary glands and inner 
side of the thigh, around the anus and vulva, in the hollow of the heel, 
beneath the fine horn of the frog, on the inner side of the elbow, on the 
lips, nostrils, and eyelids. When closed by dried secretion or other- 
wise these glands may become distended so as to form various sized 
swellings on the skin, and when inflamed they may throw out offensive 
Liquid discharges as in " grease," or produce red tender fungus growths 
( u grapes"). 

The sweat glands of the horse, like those of man, are composed of 
simple tubes, which extend down through the cuticle and dermis in a 
spiral manner, and are coiled into balls in the deeper layer of the true 



422 

skin. In addition to their importance in throwing offensive wa^te pro- 
ducts out of the system, these glands tend to cool the skin and the en- 
tire economy of the animal through the evaporation of their watery 
secretion. Their activity is therefore a matter of no small moment, as 
beside regulating the animal heat and excreting imparities, it influ- 
ences largely the internal organs through the intimate sympathy main- 
tained between them and the skin. 

Diseases of the skin may be conveniently divided, according to their 
most marked features, into : 

(1) Those in which congestion and inflammation are the most marked 
features, varying according to the grade or form into (a), congestion with 
simple redness, dryness and heat, but no eruption (erythema) ; (b), in- 
flammation with red pointed elevations but no blisters (papules); (c), in- 
flammation with fine conical elevations, each surmounted by a minute 
blister (vesicle) ; (d), inflammation with a similar eruption but with 
larger blisters, like half a pea and upwards (bullae) ; (e), inflammation 
with a similar eruption but with a small sack of white creamy pus on 
the summit of each elevation (pustules); (/), the formation of pustules 
implicating the superficial layer of the true skin, a small portion of 
which dies and is thrown off as a slough or " core" (boils) ; (g), the for- 
mation of round, nodular, transient swellings in the true skin (tubercles) 
and (h), the excessive production of scales or dandruff (scaly or squamous 
affections. 

(2) Diseases in which there is only deranged sensations, of itching, 
heat, tenderness, etc. (Neurosis). 

(3) Diseased growths, as warts, callosities, horny growths, cancer, etc. 

(4) Diseases due to parasites, animal and vegetable. 

(5) Diseases connected with a specific poison — horsepox, erysipelas, 
anthrax, farcy or cutaneous glanders, etc. 

(6) Physical injuries like wounds, burns, scalds, etc. 

CONGESTION — RED EFFLORESCENCE — ERYTHEMA. 

This is a congested or slightly inflamed condition of the skin, unat- 
tended by any eruption. The part is slightly swollen, hot, tender or 
itchy, and dry, and if the skin is white there is redness. The redness 
is effaced by pressure, but reappears instantly when the pressure is re- 
moved. Unless in transient cases the hairs are liable to be shed. It 
may be looked on as the first stage of inflammation, and therefore when 
it becomes aggravated it may merge in part or in whole into a papular, 
vesicular, or pustular eruption. 

Erythema may arise from a variety of causes, and is often named in 
accordance with its most prominent cause. Thus the chilling or partial 
freezing of a part will give rise to a severe reaction and congestion. 
Where snowy or icy streets have been salted this may extend to severe 
inflammation with vesicles, pustules, or even sloughs of circumscribed 
portions of the skin of the pastern (chill-blain, frost-bite). Heat and 



423 

burning has a similar effect, and this often comes from exposure to the 
direct rays of the sun. The skin that does not perspire is the most 
subject, and hence the white face or white limb of a horse becoming dried 
by the intensity of the sun's rays often suffers to the exclusion of the rest 
of the body (white face and foot disease). The febrile state of the general 
system is also a potent cause, hence the white-shinned horse is rendered 
the more liable if kept on a heating ration of buckwheat, or even of 
wheat or maize. Contact of the skin with oil of turpentine or other essen- 
tial oils, with irritant liquids, vegetable or mineral, with rancid fats, with 
the acrid secretions of certain animals like the irritated toad, with pus, 
sweat, tears, urine or liquid f wees, will produce congestion or even inflam- 
mation. Chafing is a common cause, and is especially liable to affect 
the fat horse between the thighs, by the side of the sheath or scrotum, 
on the inner side of the elbow, or where the harness chafes on the poll, 
shoulder, back, breastbone, and under the tail. The accumulation of 
sweat and dust between the folds of the skin, and on the surface of 
the harness, and the specially acrid character of the sweat in cer- 
tain horses contribute to chafing or " intertrigo." The heels often be- 
come congested, owing to the irritation caused by the short bristly hairs 
in clipped heels. Again, congestion may occur from friction by halter, 
harness, or other foreign body under the pastern, or inside the thigh or 
arm, or by reason of blows from another foot (cutting, interfering, over- 
reach). Finally, erythema is especially liable to occur in spring when 
the coat is being shed, and the hair follicles and general surface are 
exposed and irritable in connection with the dropping of the hairs. 

If due only to a local irritant congestion will usually disappear when 
such cause has been removed, but when the feeding or system is at fault 
these conditions must be first corrected. While the coat is being shed 
the susceptibility will continue, and the aim should be to prevent the 
disease developing and advancing so as to weaken the skin, render the 
susceptibility permanent, and lay the foundation of persistent or fre- 
quently recurring skin disease. Hence at such times the diet should 
be nonstimulating ; any excess of grain and above all of buckwheat, 
Indian corn, or wheat being avoided. A large grain ration should not be 
given at once on return from hard work, when the general system and 
stomach are unable to cope with it; the animal should not be given 
more than a swallow or two of cold water when perspiring and fatigued ; 
nor should he be allowed a full supply of water just after his grain ra- 
tion ; he should not be overheated nor exhausted by work, nor should 
dried sweat and dust be allowed to accumulate on the skin nor on the 
harness pressing on it. The exposure of the affected heels to damp, mud, 
and snow, and above all to melting snow, should be guarded against ; 
light, smooth, well-fitting harness must be secured, and where the sad- 
dle or collar irritates an incision should be made above and one below 
the part that chafes, and the padding between having been removed, 
the lining should be beaten so as to make a hollow. A zinc shield in 



424 

the upper angle of the collar will often prevent cliafin.^ - in front of the 
withers. 

Wash the chafed skin and apply salt water (one-half ounce to the 
quart), extract of witch-hazel, a weak solution of oak bark or camphor- 
ated spirit. If the surface is raw use bland powders, as oxide of zinc, 
lycopodium, starch, or smear the surface with vaseline, or with 1 ouuce 
vaseline intimately mixed with one-half dram each of sugar of lead 
and opium. In cases of chafing rest must be strictly enjoined. Where 
there is constitutional disorder or acrid sweat 1 ounce cream of tartar 
or a teaspoonful of bicarbonate of soda may be given twice daily. 

CONGESTION, WITH SMALL PIMPLES — PAPULES. 

In this affection there is the general blush, heat, etc., of erythema, to- 
gether with a crop of elevations from the size of a poppy-seed to a 
coffee-bean, visible when the hair is reversed or to be felt with the finger 
where the hair is scanty. In white skins they vary from the x>alest to 
the darkest red. All do not retain the papular type, but some go on 
to form blisters (eczema, bullae), or pustules, or dry up into scales, or 
break out into open sores, or extend into larger swellings (tubercles). 
The majority, however, remaining as pimples, characterize the disease. 
When very itchy the rubbing breaks them open, and the resulting sores 
and scales hide the true nature of the eruption. 

The general and local causes may be the same as for erythema, and in 
the same subject one portion of the skin may have simple congestion and 
another adjacent papules. As the inflammatiory action is more pro- 
nounced, so the irritation and itching are usually greater, the animal 
rubbing and biting himself severely. This itching is especially severe 
in the forms which attack the roots of the mane and tail, and there the 
disease is often so persistent and troublesome that the horse is rendered 
virtually useless. 

The bites of insects often produce a papular eruption, but in many 
such cases the swelling extends wider into a button like elevation, one- 
half to an inch in diameter. The same remarks apply to the effects of 
the poison ivy and poison sumac. 

In papular eruption first remove the cause, then apply the same gen- 
eral remedies as for simple congestion. In the more inveterate cases 
use a lotion of one-half ounce sulphide of potassium in 2 quarts water, 
to which a little Castile soap has been added. Or use a wash with one- 
half ounce oil of tar, 2 ounces Castile soap, and 20 ounces water. 

INFLAMMATION WITH BLISTERS— ECZEMA. 

In this the skin is congested, thickened, warm (white skins are red- 
dened), and shows a thick crop of little blisters formed by effusions of 
a straw-colored fluid between the true skin and the cuticle. The blis- 
ters may be of any size from a millet seed to a pea, and often crack 



425 

open and allow the escape of the fluid which concretes as a slightly 
yellowish scao or crust around the roots of the hairs. This exudation 
and incrustation are especially common where the hairs are long, thick, 
and numerous, as in the region of the pastern of heavy draught horses. 
Eczema may appear on any part of the body, but in horses it is espec- 
ially common on the heels and the lower parts of the limbs, and less 
frequently on the neck, shoulder, and abdomen. The limbs appear to 
be especially liable because of their dependent position, all blood hav- 
ing to return from them against the action of gravity, and congestions 
and swellings being common, because of the abundance of blood ves- 
sels in this part of the skin, and because of the frequent contact with 
the irritant dung and urine and their ammoniacal emanations. The legs 
further suffer from contact with wet and mud when at work, from snow 
and ice, from draughts of cold air on the wet limbs, from washing with 
caustic soaps, or from the relaxing effects of a too deep and abundant 
litter. Among other causes may be named indigestions and the pres- 
ence of irritaut matters in the blood and sweat, the result of patent- 
medicated foods and condition powders (aromatics, stimulants), green 
food, new hay, new oats, buckwheat, wheat, maize, diseased potatoes, 
smut or ergot in grains, decomposing green food, brewers grains, or 
kitchen garbage. The excitement in the skin, caused by shedding the 
coat, lack of grooming, hot weather, hot boiled or steamed food, conduces 
to the eruption. Lastly, any sudden change of food may induce it. 

The blisters may in part go on to suppuration so that vesicles and 
pustules often appear on the same patch, and when raw from rubbing 
the true nature of the eruption may be completely masked. In high-fed 
horses, kept in close stables with little work, eczema of the limbs may 
last for mouths and years. It is a very troublesome affection in draught 
stallions. 

Treatment. — This disease is so often the result of indigestion that a 
laxative of 1 pound Glauber's salts in 3 or 4 quarts water, or 1£ pints 
olive oil is often demanded to clear away irritants from the alimentary 
canal. Following this, in recent and acute cases, give 2 drams of acet- 
ate or bicarbonate of potash twice a day in the drinking water. If the 
bowels still become costive give daily 1 ounce sulphate of soda and 20 
grains powdered nux vomica. In debilitated horses combine the nux 
vomica with one-half ounce powdered gentian root. As a wash for the 
skin use 1 dram bicarbonate of soda and 1 dram carbolic acid in a 
quart of water, after having cleansed the surface with tepid water. 
Employ the same precautious as regards feeding, stabling, and care of 
harness as in simple congestion of the skin. 

In the more inveterate forms of eczema more active treatment is re- 
quired. Soak the scabs in fresh sweet oil, and in a few hours remove 
these with tepid water and castile soap; then apply an ointment of sul- 
phur or iodide of sulphur day by day. If this seems to be losing its 
effect after a week, change for mercurial ointment or a solution of sul- 



426 

phide of potassium, or of hyposulphite of soda, 3 drams to the quart of 
water. In these cases the animal may take a course of sulphur (1 
ounce daily), bisulphite of soda (£ ounce daily), or of arsenic (5 grains 
daily) mixed with 1 dram bicarbonate of soda. 

INFLAMMATION WITH PUSTULES. 

In this affection the individual elevations on the inflamed skin show in 
the center a small sack of white, creamy pus, in place of the clear liquid 
of a blister. They vary in size from a millet seed to a hazel nut. The 
pustules of glanders (farcy buds) are to be distinguished by the watery 
contents and the cord-like swelling, extending from the pustules along 
the line of the veins, and those of boils by the inflammation and 
sloughing out of a core of the true skin. The hair on the pustule stands 
erect, and is often shed with the scab which results. When itching is 
severe the parts become excoriated by rubbing, and, as in the other 
forms of skin disease, the character of the eruption may become indis- 
tinct. Old horses suffer mainly at the root of the mane and tail, and 
about the heels, and suckling foals around the mouth, on the face, inside 
the thighs, and under the tail. 

Pustules like eczema are especially liable to result from unwholesome 
food and indigestion, from a sudden change of food, above all from dry 
to green food. In foals it may result from overheating of the mare and 
allowing the first milk after she returns, or by milk rendered unwhole- 
some by faulty feeding of the dam. If a foal is brought up by hand 
the souring and other decompositions in the milk derange the digestion 
and cause such eruption. Vetches and other plants affected with 
honeydew and buckwheat have been the cause of these eruptions on 
white portions of the skin. Disorders of the kidneys or liver are com- 
mon causes of this affection. 

Treatment. — Apply soothing ointments, such as benzoated oxide of 
zinc, or vaseline with 1 dram oxide of zinc in each ounce. Or a wash 
of 1 dram sugar of lead or 2 drams hyposulphite of soda in a quart of 
water may be freely applied. If the skin is already abraded and 
scabby, smear thickly with vaseline for some hours, then wash with 
soapsuds and apply the above dressings. When the excoriations are 
indolent they may be painted with a solution of lunar caustic, 2 grains 
to 1 ounce of distilled water. Internally counteract costiveness and 
remove intestinal irritants by the same means as in eczema, and follow 
this with one-half ounce doses daily of hyposulphite of soda, and one- 
half ounce doses of gentian. Inveterate cases may often be benefited 
by a course of sulphur, bisulphite of soda, or arsenic. In all the great- 
est care must be taken with regard to food, feeding, watering, cleanli- 
ness, and work. In wet and cold seasons predisposed animals should, 
as far as possible, be protected from wet, mud, snow, and melted snow, 
above all from that which has been melted by salt. 



427 

BOILS — FURUNCLES. 

These may appear on any part of the skin, but are especially com- 
mon on the lower parts of the limbs, and on the shoulders and back 
where the skin is irritated by accumulated secretion and chafing with 
the harness. In other cases the cause is constitutional, or attended by 
unwholesome diet and overwork with loss of general health and con- 
dition. They also follow on weakening diseases, notably strangles, in 
which irritants are retained in the system from overproduction of effete 
matters during fever, and imperfect elimination. There is also the 
presence of a pyogenic bacterium, by which the disease may be main- 
tained and propagated. 

While boils are pus producing, they differ from simple pustule in 
affecting the deepest layers of the true skin, and even the superficial 
layers of the connective tissues beneath, and in the death and slough- 
ing out of the central part of the inflamed mass (core). The depth of 
the hard, indurated, painful swelling, and the formation of this central 
mass or core, which is bathed in pus and slowly separated from sur- 
rounding parts, serve to distinguish the boil alike from the pustule, 
from the farcy bud, and from a superficial abscess. 

To treat very painful boils a free incision with a lancet in two direc- 
tions, followed by a dressing with one-half an ounce carbolic acid in a 
pint of water, bound on with cotton wool or lint, may cut them short. 
The more common course is to apply a warm poultice of linseed meal 
or wheat bran, and renew daily until the center of the boil softens, 
when it should be lanced and the core pressed out. 

If the boil is smeared with a blistering ointment of Spanish flies and 
a poultice pat over it, the formation of matter and separation of the 
core is often hastened, A mixture of sugar and soap laid on the boil 
is equally good. Cleanliness of the skin and the avoidance of all 
causes of irritation are important items, and a teaspoonful of bicar- 
bonate of soda once or twice a day will sometimes assist in warding off 
a new crop. 

NETTLERASH — SURFEIT — URTICARIA. 

This is an eruption in the form of cutaneous nodules, in size from a 
hazel nut to a hickory nut, transient, with little disposition to the forma- 
tion of either blister or pustule, and usually connected witn shedding of 
the coat, sudden changes of weather, and unwholesomeness or sudden 
change in the food. It is most frequent in the spring and in young and 
vigorous animals (good feeders). The swelling embraces the -entire 
thickness of the skin and terminates by an abrupt margin in place of 
shading off into surrounding parts. When the individual swellings run 
together there are formed extensive patches of thickened integument. 
These may appear on any part of the body, and may be general ; the 
eyelids may be closed, the lips rendered immovable, or the nos- 



428 

trils so thickened that breathing becomes difficult and snuffling-. It 
may be attended by constipation or diarrhea, or by colicky pains. 
The eruption is suddeu. the whole skin being sometimes covered in a 
few hours, and it may disappear with equal rapidity or persist for six 
or eight days. 

Treatment. — This consists in clearing out the bowels by 5 drams Bar- 
badoes aloes, or 1 pound Glauber's salts, and follow the operation of 
these by daily doses of one-half ounce powdered gentian and 1 ounce 
Glauber's salts. A weak solution of alum may be applied to the swel- 
lings. 

SCALY SKIN DISEASE — PITYRIASIS. 

This affection is characterized by an excessive production and de- 
tachment of dry scales from the surface of the skin (dandruff). It is 
usually dependent on some fault in digestion, and an imperfect secre- 
tion from the sebaceous glands, and is most common in old horses with 
spare habit of body. Williams attributes ib to food rich iu saccharine 
matter (carrots, turnips), and the excretion by the skin of oxalic acid. 
He has found it iu horses irregularly worked and well fed, and ad- 
vises the administration of pitch for a length of time, and the avoidance 
of saccharine food. Otherwise the horse may take a laxative followed 
by dram doses of carbonate of potash, and the affected parts may be 
bathed with soft tepid water and smeared with an ointment made with 
vaseline and sulphur. In obstinate cases sulphur may be given daily 
in the food. 

NERVOUS IRRITATION OF THE SKIN— PRURITUS. 

This is seen in horses fed to excess on grain and hay, kept in close 
stables, and worked irregularly. Though most common in summer it 
is often severe in hot, close stables in winter. Pimples, vesicles, and 
abrasions may result, but as the itching is quite as severe on other 
parts of the skin, these may be the result of scratching merely. It is 
especially common and inveterate about the roots of the mane and 
tail. 

Treatment consist sin a purgative (Glauber's salts, I pound), restricted, 
laxative diet, and a wash of water slightly soured with oil of vitriol and 
rendered sweet by carbolic acid. If obstinate, give daily 1 ounce of 
sulphur and 20 grains mix vomica. If the acid lotion fails, 2 drams 
carbonate of potash and 2 grains of cyanide of potassium in a quart of 
water will sometimes benefit. If due to pin worms in the rectum, the 
itching of the tail may be remedied by an occasional injection of a quart 
of water in which chips of quassia wood have been steeped for twelve 
hours. 



429 

HERPES. 

This name has been applied to a disease in which there is an eruption 
of minute vesicles in circular groups or clusters, with little tendency 
to burst but rather to dry up into hue scabs. If the vesicles break 
they exude a slight, gummy discharge which concretes into a small, 
hard scab. It is apparently noncontagious and not appreciably con- 
nected with any disorder of internal organs. It sometimes accompanies 
or follows specific fevers, and is on the whole most frequent at the 
seasons of changing the coat — spring and autumn. It is seen on the 
lips and pastern, but may appear on any part of the body. The dura- 
tion of the eruption is two weeks or even more, the tendency being to 
spontaneous recovery. The affected part is very irritable, causing a 
sensitiveness and a disposition to rub, out of proportion to the extent of 
the eruption. 

It may be treated by oxide of zinc ointment, and to relieve the irrita- 
tion a solution of opium or belladonna in water, or of sugar of lead or 
oil of peppermint. A course of bitters (one-half an ounce Peruvian 
bark daily for a week) may be serviceable in bracing the system and 
producing an indisposition to the eruption. 

BLEEDING SKIN ERUPTIONS — DERMATORRHAGrIA PARASITICA. 

In China, Hungary, Spain, and other countries horses frequently suf- 
fer from the presence of a thread worm (Filaria hcemorrhagica^KsbilUet: 
F. multipapullosa, Condamine, Drouilly) in the subcutaneous connective 
tissue, causing effusions of blood under the scurf skin, and encrustations 
of dried blood ou the surface. The eruptions, which appear mainly on 
the sides of the truuk, but may cover any part of the body, are rounded 
elevations about the size of a small pea, containing blood which bursts 
through the scurf skin and concretes like a reddish scab around the erect, 
rigid hairs. These swellings appear in groups, which remain out for 
several days, gradually diminishing in size 5 new groups appear after 
an interval of three or four weeks, the manifestation being confined to 
three or four months of spring and disappearing in winter. A horse 
will sutler for several years in succession, and then permanently re- 
cover. A fatal issue is not unknown. To find the worm the hair is 
shaved from the part where the elevations are felt, and as soon as a 
bleeding point is shown the superficial layer is laid open with the knife, 
when the parasite will be seen drawing itself back into the parts be- 
neath. The worm is about 2 inches long and like a stout thread, thicker 
towards the head than towards the tail, and with numerous little con- 
ical elevations (papillae) around the head. The young worms are num- 
erous in the body of the adult female worm. 

The worm has become common in given localities, and probably enters 
the system with food or water. Treatment is not satisfactory, but the 
aflected surface should be kept clean by sponging, and the pressure of 



430 

harness on any affected part must be avoided. Thus rest may become 
essential. The part may be frequently washed with a strong solution 
of sulphide of potassium. 

SUMMER SORES FROM FILARIA IRRITANS. 

The summer sores of horses (dermatitis granulosa, boils) have been 
traced to the presence in the skin of another parasite, 3 millimeters in 
length and extremely attenuated (Filaria irritans, Bailliet). The sores 
may be seen as small as a millet seed, but more frequently the size of a 
pea, and may become an inch in diameter. They may appear on any 
point, but are especially obnoxious where the harness presses or on the 
lower part of the limbs. They cause intense and insupportable itching, 
and the victim rubs and bites the part until extensive raw surfaces are 
produced. Aside from such friction the sore is covered by a brownish- 
red, soft, pulpy material with cracks or furrows filled with serous pus. 
In the midst of the softened mass are small, firm, rounded granulations, 
fibrinous, and even caseated, and when the softpultaceous material has 
been scraped off the surface bears a resemblance to the fine yellow 
points of miliary tuberculosis in the lung. The worm or its debris is 
found in the center of such masses. These sores are very obstinate, re- 
sisting treatment for months in summer, and even after apparent recov- 
ery during the cold season they may appear anew the following summer. 
In bad cases the rubbing and biting may cause exposure of synovial 
sacs and tendons, and cause irremediable injury. Even in winter, how- 
ever, when the diseased process seems arrested, there remains the hard, 
firm, resistant patches of the skin with points in which the diseased 
product has become softened like cheese. 

The apparent subsidence of the disease in winter is attributed to the 
coldness and comparative bloodlessness of the skin, whereas in sum- 
mer, with high temperature, active circulation, and rapid cell-growth, 
inflammation is increased, itching follows, and from the animal rubbiug 
the part the irritation is persistently increased. The hotter the cli- 
mate the more troublesome the disease. 

The life history of the parasite is unknown, but it probably enters 
the system with the food or water. 

Treatment consists, first, in placing the animal in a cool place and 
showering the surface with cold water. The parasite may be destroyed 
by rubbing the surface of the wound with iodoform, and covering it 
with a layer of collodion, and repeating the applications every twenty- 
four hours for fifteen days, or until the sores heal up. Ether or chloro- 
form may be used in place of iodoform, being poured on cotton wool 
and applied to the sore for two minutes before painting it with collodion. 

CRACKED HEELS — SCRATCHES — CHAPS ON KNEE AND HOCK. 

This usually sets in with swelling, heat, and tenderness of the hollow 
of the heel, with erections of the hairs and redness (in white skins), 



431 

with stiffness and lameness, which may be extreme in irritable borses. 
Soon slight cracks appear transversely, and may gain in depth aud 
widtb, and may even suppurate. More frequently they become covered 
at tbe edges or tbrougbout by firm incrustations resulting from the dry- 
ing of the liquids thrown out, and the skin becomes increasingly thick 
and rigid. A similar condition occurs behind the knee and in front of 
the bock (malanders and salanders), and may extend from these points 
to the hoof, virtually incasing that side of the limb in a permanent 
incrusting sheath. Besides a heavy lymphatic constitution, which pre- 
disposes to this affection, the causes are overfeeding on grain, altered 
unwholesome fodder, close, hot, dirty stables, constant contact with 
dung and urine and their emanations, working in deep, irritant mud; 
above all, in limestone districts, irritation by dry limestone or sandy 
dust in dry weather on dirt road, also cold draughts, snow and freezing- 
mud, washing the legs with caustic soap, wrapping the wet legs in 
thick woolen bandages which soak the skin and render it sensitive 
when exposed next day, clipping the heels, weak heart and circulation, 
natural or supervening on overwork, imperfect nourishment, impure 
air, lack of sunshine, chronic, exhausting, or debilitating diseases, or 
functional or structural diseases of the heart, liver, or kidneys. These 
last induce dropsical swelling of the limbs (stocking), weaken the parts, 
and induce cracking. Finally the cicatrix of a preexisting crack, weak, 
rigid, and unyielding, is liable to reopen under any severe exertion, 
hence rapid paces and heavy draft are active causes. 

In treatment the first step is to ascertain and remove the cause when- 
ever possible. If there is much local heat and inflammation a laxative 
(5 drams aloes, or 1 j>ound Glauber salts) may be given, and for the 
pampered animal the grain should be reduced or replaced altogether by 
bran mashes, flaxseed, and other laxative, noustimulating food. In 
the debilitated, on the other hand, nutritious food and bitter tonics 
may be given, and even a course of arsenic (5 grains arsenic with 1 
dram bicarbonate of soda daily). When the legs swell exercise on dry 
roads, hand-rubbing, and evenly applied bandages are good, and mild 
astringents, like extract of witch-hazel may be applied and the part 
subsequently rubbed dry aud bandaged. If there is much heat but un- 
broken skin, a lotion of 2 drams sugar of lead to 1 quart of water may 
be applied on a thin bandage, covered in cold weather with a dry one. 
The same may be used after the cracks appear, or a solution of sulphu- 
rous acid solution 1 part, glycerine 1 part, and water 1 part, applied on 
cotton and well covered by a bandage. In case these should prove un- 
suitable to the particular case, the part may be smeared with vaseline 
1 ounce, sugar of lead 1 dram, and carbolic acid 10 drops. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE HEELS FROM A FUNGUS — GREASE — CANKER. 

This is a specific affection of the heels of horses, associated with the 
growth of a parasitic fungus (Oidium batracosis, dermavhyton), an offen- 



432 

sive discharge from the numerous sebaceous glands and in bad cases 
the formation of red, raw, excrescences (grapes) from the surface. It is 
to be distinguished (1) from simple inflammation, in which the special 
fetid discharge and the tendency to the formation of "grapes" are ab- 
sent ; (2), from Jwrsepox, in which the abundant exudate -forms a firm 
yellow incrustation around the roots of the hair, and is embedded at in- 
tervals in the pits formed by the individual pocks, and in which there 
is no vascular excrescence; (3), from foot scabies (mange), in which the 
presence of an acarus is distinctive ; (4), from lymphangitis, in which 
the swelling appears suddenly extending around the entire limb as high 
as the hock, and on the inner side of the thigh along the line of the vein 
to the groin, and in which there is active fever, and (5) , from erysipelas, 
in which there is active fever (wanting in grease), the implication of the 
deeper layers of the skin aud of the parts beneath giving a boggy feel- 
ing to the parts, the absence of the fetid, greasy discharge, and finally 
a tendency to form pus loosely in the tissues without any limiting mem- 
brane as in abscess. Another distinctive feature of grease is its tend- 
ency to implicate the skin which secretes the bulbs or heels of the horny 
frog aud in the cleft of the frog, constituting the disease known as 
canker. 

The predisposing causes of grease are essentially the same as those of 
simple inflammation of the heel, so that the reader may consult the 
preceding article, and though the specific fungus (Oidium batracosis) is 
essential to the disease, yet it usually remains inoperative unless the 
field has been prepared by the coexistent predisposing factors. Local 
irritants may cause simple inflammation, and may be essential to the 
growth of the implanted germ, but without that germ it will not pro- 
duce grease. 

The symptoms vary according to whether the disease comes on sud- 
denly or more tardily. In the first case there is a sudden swelling of the 
skin in the heel with heat, tenderness, itching, and stiffness, which is 
lessened during exercise. In the slower forms there is only seen a slight 
swelling after rest, and with little heat or inflammation for a week or 
more. Even at this early stage a slightserous oozing may be detected. 
As the swelling increases, extending up toward the hock or knees, the 
hairs stand erect, and are bedewed by moisture no longer clear aud 
odorless, but grayish, milky, and fetid. The fetor of the discharge 
draws attention to the part whenever one enters the stable, and the 
swollen pastern and wet, matted hairs on the heel draw attention to the 
precise seat of the malady. If actively treated the disease may not ad- 
vance farther, but if neglpcted the tense tender skin cracks open, leav- 
ing open sores from which vascular bleeding growths grow up, con- 
stituting the "grapes." The hair is shed, and the heel may appear but 
as one mass of rounded, red, angry excrescences which bleed on hand- 
ling aud are covered with the now repulsively fetid decomposing dis- 
charge. During this time there is little or no fever, the animal feeds 



433 

well, and bat for its local trouble it might continue at work. When tho 
malady exteuds to the frog there is a fetid discharge from its cleft, or 
from the depressions at its sides, and this gradually extends to its whole 
surface and upon the adjacent parts of the sole. The horn meanwhile 
becomes soft, whitish, and fleshy in aspect, its constituent tubes being 
greatly enlarged and losiug their natural cohesion; it grows rapidly 
above the level of the surrounding horn, and when pared is found to be 
penetrated to an unusual depth by the secreting papillae, and that at 
intervals these have bulged out into a vascular fungus mass compar- 
able to the " grapes." 

In treatment hygienic measures occupy a front rank, but are in them- 
selves insufficient to establish a cure. All local and general conditions 
which favor the production and persistence of the disease must be 
guarded against. Above all, cleanliness and purity of the stable and 
air must be secured ; also, nourishing diet, regular exercise, and the 
avoidance of local irritants — septic, muddy, chilling, etc. At the outset 
beuzoated oxide of zinc ointment may be used with advantage. A still 
better dressing is made with 1 ounce vaseline, 2 drams oxide of zinc, 
and 20 drops iodized phenol. If the surface is much swollen and tender, 
a flaxseed poultice may be applied over the surface of which has been 
poured some of the following lotion : Sugar of lead, one-half ounce; car- 
bolio acid, 1 dram; water, 1 quart. All the astringents of the pharma- 
copoeia have been employed with more or less advantage, and some par- 
ticular one seems to suit particular cases or patients. To destroy the 
grapes, they may be rubbed daily with strong caustics (copperas, blue 
stone, lunar caustic), or each may be tied round its neck by a stout 
waxed thread, or fiually and more speedily they may be cut off by a 
blacksmith's shovel heated to redness, and applied with its sharp edge 
toward the neck of the excrescence, over a cold shovel held between it 
and the skin to protect it from the heat. The latter must be frequently 
dipped in water to cool it down. After the removal of the grapes the 
astringent dressing must be persistently applied to the surface. When 
the frog is affected it must be pared to the quick and dressed with dry 
caustic powders (quicklime, copperas, bluestone), or carbolic acid and 
subjected to pressure, the dressing being renewed every day at least. 

ERYSIPELAS. 

This is a specific contagious disease, characterized by spreading drop- 
sical inflammation of the skin and subcutaneous tissues, attended by 
general fever. It differs from most specific diseases in the absence of 
a definite period of incubation, a regular course and duration, and a 
conferring of immunity on the subject after recovery. On the contrary, 
one attack of erysipelas predisposes to another, partly, doubtless, by the 
loss of tone and vitality in the affected tissues, but also, perhaps, be- 
cause of the survival of the infecting germ. It is no longer to be doubted 
11035 28 



434 

that the microbes found in the inflammatory product are the true cause 
of erysipelas, as the disease can be successfully transferred from man 
to animals and from one animal to another by their means. This trans- 
ition may be direct or through the medium of infected buildings or other 
articles. Yet from the varying severity of erysipelas in different out- 
breaks and localities it has been surmised that various different microbes 
are operative in this disease, and a perfect knowledge of these might 
perhaps enable us to divide erysipelas into two or more distinct affec- 
tions. At present we must recognize it as a specific inflammation due 
to a bacterial poison and closely allied to septicaemia. Erysipelas was 
formerly known as surgical when it spread from a wound (through which 
the germ had gained access), and medical or idiopathic when it started 
independently of any recognizable lesion. .Depending as it does, how- 
ever, upon a germ distinct from the body the disease must be looked 
upon as one no matter by what channel the germ found an entrance. 
Erysipelas which follows a wound is usually much more violent than the 
other form, the difference being doubtless partly due to the lowered vi- 
tality of the wounded tissues and to the oxidation and septic changes 
whichare invited on the raw, exposed surface. As apparently idiopathic 
cases may be due to infection through bites of insects, the small amount 
of poison inserted may serve to moderate the violence. 

This affection may attack a wound of any part of the horse's body, 
while apart from wounds it is most frequent about the head and the 
hind limbs. It is to be distinguished from ordinary inflammations by 
its gradual extension from the point first attacked, by the abundant 
liquid exudation into the affected part, by the tension of the skin over 
the affected part, by its soft boggy feeling, allowing it to be deeply in- 
dented by the finger, by the abrupt line of limitation between the 
diseased and healthy skin, the former descending suddenly to the 
healthy level instead of shading off slowly towards it, by the tendency 
of the inflammation to extend deeply into the subjacent tissues between 
and into the muscles and other structures, by the great tendency to 
death and sloughing of portions of skin and of the structures beneath, 
by the formation of pus at various different points throughout the 
diseased parts without any surrounding sack to protect the surround- 
ing structures from its destructive action, and without the usual dispo- 
sition of pus to advance harmlessly toward the surface and escape ; and, 
finally, by a low prostrating type of fever, with elevated temperature of 
the body, coated tongue, excited breathing, and loss of appetite. The pus 
when escaping through a lancet wound is grayish, browuish, or reddish, 
with a heavy or fetid odor, and intermixed with shreds of broken-down 
tissues. The most destructive form, however, is that in which pus is 
deficient, and gangrene and sloughing more speedy and extensive. 

Treatment resolves itself mainly into the elimination from the system 

of the poisonous products of the bacteria by laxatives and diuretics, the 

-sustaining of the failing vitality by tonics and stimulants above all 



435 

those of the nature of antifernients, and the local application of astrin« 
gent and antiseptic agents. Internal treatment may consist in 4 
drams tincture of muriate of iron, and one-half dram muriate of am- 
monia or chlorate of potash, given in a pint of water every two 
hours. To this may be added, liberally, whisky or brandy when the 
prostration is very marked. Locally a strong solution of iron, alum, or 
of sulphate of iron and laudanum may be used. Or the affected part 
may be painted with tincture of muriate of iron or with iodized phenol. 
In mild cases a lotion of 4 drams sugar of lead and 2 ounces lauda- 
num in a quart of water may be applied. It is desirable to avoid the 
formation of wounds and the consequent septic action, yet when pus 
has formed, and is felt by fluctuation under the finger to be approach- 
ing the surface, it should be freely opened with a clean, sharp lancet, 
and the wound thereafter disinfected daily with carbolic acid 1 part to 
water 10 parts, with a saturated solution of hyposulphite of soda, or 
with powders of iodoform or salol. 

Horse-pox, anthrax, and cutaneous glanders (farcy), will 
come more properly under contagious diseases. 

callosities. 

These are simple thickening and induration of the cuticle by reason 
of continued pressure, notably iu lying down on a hard surface. Being 
devoid of hair they cause blemishes, hence smooth floors and good bed- 
ding should be secured as preventives. 

HORNY SLOUGHS — SITFASTS — SLOUGHING CALLOSITIES. 

These are circumscribed sloughs of limited portions of the skin, the 
result of pressure by badly-fitting harness, or by irritating masses of 
dirt, sweat, and hairs under the harness. They are most common 
under the saddle, but may be found under collar or breeching as well. 
The sitfast is a piece of dead tissue which would be thrown off but that 
it has formed firm connections with the fibrous skin beneath, or even 
deeper with the fibrous layers (fascia) of the muscles, or with the bones, 
and is thus bound in its place as a persistent source of irritation. The 
horn-like slough may thus involve the superficial part of the skin only, 
or the whole thickness of the skin, and even of some of the structures 
beneath. The first object is to remove the dead irritant by dissecting 
it off with a sharp knife, after which the sore may be treated with sim- 
ple wet cloths or a weak carbolic acid lotion, like a common wound. If 
the outline of the dead mass is too indefinite, a linseed-meal poultice 
will make its outline more evident to the operator. If the fascia or 
bone has become gangrenous the dead portion must be removed with the 
hornlike skin. During and after treatment the horse must be kept at 
rest or the harness must be so adjusted that no pressure can come near 
the affected parts, 



436 

WARTS. 

These are essentially a morbid overgrowth of the superficial papil- 
lary layer of the skin and of the investing cuticular layer. They are 
mostly seen in young horses, about the lips, eyelids, cheeks, ears, be- 
neath the belly, and on the sheath, but may develop anywhere. The 
smaller ones may be clipped off with scissors and the raw surface cau- 
terized with bluestone. The larger may be sliced off with a sharp 
knife, or if with a narrow neck they may be twisted off and then cau- 
terized. If very vascular they may be strangled by a waxed thread or 
cord tied around the neck, at least three turns being made round and 
the ends being fixed by passing them beneath the last preceding turn 
of the cord, so that they can be tightened day by day as they slacken 
by shrinkage of the tissues. If the neck is too broad it may be trans- 
fixed several times with a double-threaded needle and then be tied in 
sections. Very broad warts that can not be treated in this way may be 
burned down to beneath the surface of the skin with a soldering bolt 
at a red heat and any subsequent tendency to overgrowth kept down 
by bluestone. 

BLACK PIGMENT TUMORS — MELANOSIS. 

These are common in gray and white horses on the naturally black 
parts of the skin at the root of the tail, around the anus, vulva, udder, 
sheath, eyelids and lips. They are readily recognized by their inky 
black color, which extends throughout the whole mass. They may ap- 
pear as simple pea-like masses, or as multiple tumors aggregating many 
pounds, especially around the tail. Iu the horse these are usually simple 
tumors, and may be removed with the knife. In exceptional cases they 
prove cancerous, as they usually are in man. 

EPITHELIAL CANCER — EPITHELIOMA. 

This sometimes occurs on the lips at the angle of the mouth, and 
elsewhere in the horse. It begins as a small wart-like tumor, which 
grows slowly at first but finally bursts open, ulcerates and extends 
laterally and deeply in the skin and other tissues, destroying them as 
it advances (rodent ulcer.) It is made up of a fibrous framework and 
numerous round, ovoid, or cylindrical cavities, lined with masses of 
epithelial cells, which may be squeezed out as a fetid caseous material. 
The most successful treatment is early and thorough removal with the 
knife. 

VEGETABLE PARASITES OP THE SKIN. 

Parasite: Trichophyton tonsurans. Malady: Tinea tonsurans — 
Circinate ringworm. — This is especially common in young horses com- 
ing into training and work, in low-conditioned colts in winter and 
spring after confinement indoors and during moulting, in lymphatic 



437 

rather than nervous subjects, and at the same time in several animals 
that have herded together. The disease is common to man, and among 
the domestic animals to horse, ox, goat, dog, cat, and in rare iustances 
to sheep and swine. Hence it is common to find animals of different 
species and their attendants suffering at once, the diseases having been 
propagated from one to the other. 

In the horse the symptoms are tbe formation of a circular scruffy patch 
where the fungus has established itself, the hairs of the affected spot 
beiug erect, bristly, twisted, broken, or split up and dropping off. Later 
the spot first affected has become entirely bald, and a circular row of 
hairs around this are erect, bristly, broken, and split. These in turn 
are shed and a new row outside passes through the same process, so that 
the extension is made in a more or less circular outline. The central 
bald spot, covered with a grayish scruff and surrounded by a circle of 
broken and split hairs, is. characteristic. If the scrnff and diseased 
hairs are treated with caustic potash solution and put under the micro- 
scope the natural cells of the cuticle and hair will be seen to have 
become transparent, while the groups of spherical cells and branching 
filaments of the fungus stand out prominently in the substance of both, 
dark and unchanged. The eruption usually appears on the back, loins, 
croup, chest, and head. It tends to spontaneous recovery in a month 
or two, leaving for a time a dappled coat from the spots of short, light- 
colored hair of the new growth. 

The most effective way of reaching the parasite in the hair follicles is 
to extract the hairs individually, but in the horse the mere shaving of the 
affected part is usually enough. It may then be painted with tincture 
of iodine twice a day for two weeks. Germs about the stable may be 
covered up or destroyed by a whitewash of freshly burned quicklime, 
the harness, brushes, etc., may be washed with caustic soda, and then 
smeared with a solution of corrosive sublimate one half drachm and 
water 1 pint. The clothing may be boiled and dried. 

Parasite: Trichophyton sporuloides. Malady: Plica Polonica. — 
Plica Polonica, which mats together the mane and tail of the horse as 
well as the hair of men, is associated with numerous spores of a tri- 
chophyton, and is rationally treated by cutting off the hair and apply- 
ing tincture of iodine or a solution of corrosive sublimate (4 parts to 
1,000 water). 

Parasite : Achorion Schonleini. Malady : Faviis, Honeycomb ring- 
worm. — Megniu and Goyau, who describe this in the horse, say that it 
loses its characteristic honeycomb or cup-shaped appearance, and forms 
only a series of closely aggregated, dry, yellowish crusts the size of 
hemp seed on the trunk, shoulders, flanks, or thighs. They are ac- 
companied by severe itching, especially at night. The cryptogam, 
formed of spherical cells with a few filaments only : grows in the hair 
follicles and on the cuticle, and thus a crust often forms around the 
root of a hair. Like the other cryptogams, their color, as seen under the 



438 

microscope, is unaffected by acetic acid, alcohol, ether, or oil of turpen- 
tine, while the cells are turned bluish by iodine. For treatment, re- 
move the hair and apply tincture of iodine or corrosive sublimate lotion, 
as advised uuder the last paragraph. 

Parasite: Microsporon Furfur. Malady: Parasitic pityriasis. — 
This attacks the horse's head where the harness presses, and leads to 
dropping of the hair, leaving bald patches covered with a branlike 
scruf, without any eruption, heat, tenderness, swelling, or rigidity of 
the skin. A lotion of carbolic acid, 1 dram, and water, 2£ ounces, is 
usually applied to effect a cure. 

ANIMAL PARASITES OF THE SKIN. 

Acariasis: Mange. — This affection is due to the irritation of the skin, 
caused by the presence of a nearly microscopic acarus or mite. The 
disease varies, however, according to the species of acarus which in- 
fests the skin, so that we must treat of several different kinds of acari- 
asis. 

Parasite : Sarcoptes equi. Malady : Sarcoptic acariasis. — This is 
the special sarcoptes of the horse, but under favorable conditions it 
can be transmitted to ass and mule, and even to man, and may live 
indefinitely on the human skin. The mite is nearly microscopical, but 
may be detected with a magnifying lens among moving scurf taken 
from the infected skin. Like all sarcoptes, it burrows little galleries in 
and beneath the scurf skin, where it hides and lays its eggs and where 
its young are hatched. It is therefore often difficult to find the para- 
site on the surface, unless the skin has been heated by a temporary 
exposure to the sun or in a warm room. Even then it may be needful 
to tie the scab on the human arm till a pricking is felt, when the aca- 
rus will be found in the center of a minute papule caused by its bite. 
Like other acari this is wonderfully prolific, a new generation of fifteen 
individuals being possible every fifteen days, so that in three months 
the offspring of a single pair may produce a generation of 1,500,000 
young. The sarcoptes have less vitality than the nonburrowing acari, 
as they die in an hour when kept in dry air apart from the skin at a 
heat of 145° F. They live twelve to fourteen days apavt from the 
skin in the damp air of a stable. On a piece of damp hide they lived 
till the twenty-fourth day, but were dead on the twenty-eighth. 

The symptoms are an incessant, intolerable, and increasing itching of 
some part of the skin (head, mane, tail, back, etc.), the horse inclining 
himself toward the hand that scratches him, and moving his lips as if 
himself scratching. The hairs may be broken and rubbed off, but the 
part is never entirely bald as in ringworm, and there may be papules 
or any kind of eruption or open sores from the energy of the scratching. 
Scabs of any thickness may form, but the special features are the in- 
tense itching and the discovery of the acarus. 



439 

Treatment consists in the removal of the scabs by soapsuds, and, if 
necessary, a brush, and the thorough application of tobacco 1£ ounces 
and water 2 pints, prepared by boiling. This may be applied, more 
than once, and should, always be repeated, after fifteen days, to destroy 
the new brood that may have been hatched in the interval. All harness 
and. stable utensils should be similarly treated ; blankets and rubbers 
may be boiled, and the stalls should be covered with a whitewash of 
quicklime, containing one fourth pound of chloride of lime to the gallon. 

Parasite: Sarcoptes mutatis. Malady: Sarcoptio acariasis from 
fowls. — This parasite belongs to chickens, but can live on the skin of the 
fox and horse as well. A troublesome mange may therefore at times 
be traceable to the proximity of a chicken roost. The general symptoms 
and" treatment are essentially the same as for sarcoptis equi. 

Parasite : Psoroptis equi {Dermatocoptis equi, Dermatodectis equi). 
Malady : Psoroptic acariasis. — This produces the most frequent mange 
in horses, and as the parasite only bites the surface and lives among 
the crusts under the shelter of a hair, it is very easily discovered. It 
reproduces itself with equal rapidity, and causes similar symptoms to 
those produced by the sarcoptes. The same treatment will suffice and 
is more promptly effectual. The purifying of the stable must be more 
thorough, as the psoroptis will survive twenty to thirty days in the 
moist atmosphere of a stable, and may even revive after six or eight 
weeks when subjected to moist warmth. Infested pastures will there- 
fore prove dangerous to horses for that length of time, and with rub- 
bing posts, etc., should be secluded. 

Parasite : Symbiotis equi, Dermatophagus equi, Chorioptes spathifer- 
ous. Malady: Foot mange. — This acarus attacks the heels and lower 
parts of the legs, especially the hind ones, and may be present for years 
without extending upon the body. Like the psoroptis, it lives on the 
surface, on the hairs, and among the scabs. It gives rise to great itch- 
ing, stamping, rubbing of the one leg with the other, and the formation 
of papules, wounds, ulcerous sores, and scabs. The intense itching will 
always suggest this parasite, aud the discovery of the acarus will 
identify the disease. Treatment is the same as for the sarcoptes, but 
may be confined to the legs and the parts with which they come in 
contact. 

Parasite.— Bermanyssus gallineie — Chicken Acari. Malady: Poultry 
acariasis. — This is a large-sized acarus, though usually miscalled " hen 
louse," and the disease " poultry-lousiness." The mite lives in the hen 
manure and adjacent woodwork, but temporarily passes on to the skin 
of man, and of the horse and other quadrupeds, when occasion serves. 
It causes much irritation, with the eruption of papules or vesicles and 
the formation of sores and scabs. The examination of the skin is 
usually fruitless, as the attacks are mostly made at night and the effects 
only may be seen during the day. The proximity of hen manure swarm- 
ing with the acari explaius the trouble, and the removal of this and a 



440 

whitewashing with quick lime with or without chloride of lime will pre- 
vent future attacks. The skin may still require bland ointments or 
lotions, as for congestion. 

Parasite: Larva of a Trombidium — Leptus Americanns — Hat-vest 
Bug. misnamed Jigger (Chigoe). Malady: Autumn mange. — This par- 
asite is a brick-red acarus, visible to the naked eye on a dark ground, 
and living on green vegetation iu many localities. It attacks man, 
and the horse, ox, clog, etc., burrowing under the skin and giving rise to 
small papules and intolerable irritation. This continues for two or three 
days only if no fresh acari are received, but will last until cold weather 
sets in if a fresh colony is received every day. Horses at pasture suffer 
mainly on the lower part of the face. If kept indoors the disease will 
disappear, or if left at pasture a weak tar water or solution of tobacco 
may be applied to the face. 

Parasites: Qamarus Pteroptoides and Chegletaes live in musty fod- 
ders and are found on the horse. 

TICKS. 

The wood tick is familiar to inhabitants of uncultivated lands, and 
proves a troublesome parasite to man and beast alive. It lives on 
bushes, and only attaches itself to the mammal to secure a feast of 
blood, for when gorged it drops off to sleep off its debauch on the soil. 
The tick produces great irritation by boring into the skin with its armed 
proboscis. If pulled out the head and thorax are often left in the skin. 
They may be covered with oil to shut out the air from their breathing 
pores, or by touching them with a hot penknife they will be impelled 
to let go. If extracted by the hand they should be turned to the left 
like a screw. It is needless to particularize the several species, as all 
can be treated alike. 

GRUBS IN SKIN. 

Parasite: JTypoderma Silenus. Malady: Larva (Grubs) under the 
slcin. — This fly deposits its embryo on or in the skin of the horse, as its 
congener (Eypoderma bovis) does in the ox, and the resulting larvse 
pass the winter in little rounded sacks beneath the integument, fur- 
nished with a central opening, through which the mature larva escapes 
in early summer and develops into a fly. In districts where they exist 
the grubs should be pressed out of the skin and destroyed iu the course 
of the winter. 

LARVA (GRUBS) ON THE SKIN — FLY-BLOW. 

The following flies, among others, deposit their eggs on open sores 
or on wet filthy parts of the skin, where their larvse or grubs give rise 
to serious trouble: Lucilia Cwsar (blue bottle). Lucilia hominivorax 
(screw-worm fly), Musca vomitoria (meat fly), and Sarcophaga carnaria 



441 

(flesh fly). To prevent their attacks wet, filthy hair should be removed 
and wounds kept clean, aud rendered antiseptic by a lotion of carbolic 
acid 1 part, water 50 parts ; by a mixture of 1 ounce oil of tar in 20 
ounces sweet oil, or some other antiseptic. If the grubs are already 
present they should be picked off and one of these dressings freely 
applied. 

FLIES. 

A number of flies attack horses and suck their blood, producing great 
annoyance, and in some instances death. These insects not onty suck 
the blood, but also often instil an acid poison into the skin, and in ex- 
ceptional cases transfer iufectious germs from animal to animal by inoc- 
ulatiou. 

Various devices are resorted to to prevent the attacks, as to sponge 
the skin with a decoction of walnut or elder leaves, of tobacco, to dust 
with Persian insect powder, to keep a light blanket or fly-net on the 
horse, to close doors and windows with fine screens and destroy by pyr- 
ethrum any flies that have gained admission, to remove all manure 
heaps that would prove breeding places for flies, to keep the stalls 
clean, deodorize by gypsum and to spread in them trays of dry chlo- 
ride of lime. For the poisoned bites apply ammonia, or a solution of 
1 part of carbolic acid in 20 parts of sweet oil or glycerine, or one- 
fourth ounce bicarbonate of soda and 1 dram of carbolic acid in a quart 
of water may be used. 

£TINGS OF BEES, WASPS, AND HORNETS. 

These are much more irritating than the bites of flies, partly because 
the barbed sting is left in the wound, and partly because of the amount 
and quality of the venom. When a swarm attacks an animal the result 
may prove fatal. 

Treatment consists in the application of wet clay, or of a lotion of soda 
or ammonia, or of carbolic acid, or of sugar of lead 2 drams, laudanum 
1 ounce, and water 1 pint. The embedded stings should be extracted 
with fine forceps or even with the finger nails. 

FLEA — PULEX. 

The flea of man and those of the dog and cat, when numerous, will 
bite the horse and give rise to rounded swellings on the skin. To dis- 
pose of them it is needful to clear the surroundings of the grnblike 
larvae as well as to treat the victim. The soil may be sprinkled with 
quicklime, carbolic acid, coal tar, or petroleum; the stalls maybe del- 
uged with boiling water and afterward painted with oil of turpentine 
and littered with fresh pine sawdust, and all blankets should be boiled. 
The skin may be sponged with a solution of 1 part carbolic acid in 50 
parts water. Dogs, cats, and pigs should be dressed with the same 
lotion, or, better, removed from the vicinity of the stable. 



442 

The chigoe (Tulex penetrans) of the Gulf coast is still more injurious, 
because it burrows under the surface and deposits its eggs to be hatched 
out slowly with much irritatiou. The tumor formed by it should be 
laid open and the parasite extracted. If it bursts so that its eggs 
escape into the wound, they may be destroyed by introducing a wire at 
a red heat. 

LICE — PEDICULI. 

Two kinds of lice attack the horse, one of which is furnished with 
narrow head and a proboscis for perforating the skin and sucking the 
blood, and the other — the broad-headed kind — with strong mandibles, 
by which it bites the skin only. Of the bloodsuckers, one is common 
to horse and ass and another to horse and ox, while of the nonsuckiug 
lice one species attacks horse and ox and a second ox aud ass. The 
poor condition, itching, and loss of hair, should lead to suspicion and a 
close examination will detect the lice. They may be destroyed by rub- 
bing the victim with sulphur ointment, or with sulphuret of potassium 
4 ounces, water 1 gallon, or with tar water, or the skin may be sponged 
with benzine. The application should be repeated a week later to de- 
stroy all lice hatched from the nits in the interval. Buildings, clothes, 
etc., should be treated as for fleas. 

TARANTULA AND SCORPION. 

The bite of the first and the sting of the second are poisonous, and 
may be treated like other insect venom, by carbolated glycerine or a 
strong solution of ammonia. 

SNAKE EITES. 

These are marked by the double incision caused by the two fangs, by 
the excessive doughy (dark red) swelling around the wounds, and in bad 
cases by the general symptoms of giddiness, weakness, and prostration. 
They are best treated by enormous doses of alcohol, whisky or brandy, 
or by aqua ammonia very largely diluted in water, the object being to 
sustain life until the poison shall have spent its power. As local treat- 
ment, if the wound is in a limb, the latter may have a handkerchief or 
cord tied around it, above the injury, and drawn tight by a stick twisted 
into it. In this way absorption may be checked until the poison can be 
destroyed by the application of a hot iron or a piece of nitrate of silver 
or other caustic. A poultice of tobacco leaves is a favorite remedy, 
and may be used to soothe the sore after cauterization. 

BURNS AND SCALDS. 

For scalds the surface may be bathed with a solution of bicarbonate 
of soda, sweetened or not by carbolic acid, or a weak solution of sugar 
of lead may be used; or the surface maybe dusted thickly with starch 
or flour aud covered with cotton wool, or oil of turpentine may be ap- 



443 

plied over the scalded skin. Burns are well treated by liniment made 
of equal parts of lime water and linseed oil (Carrou oil). For both 
kinds of injuries, cosmoline ten parts, and carbolic acid, oue part, proves 
an excellent dressing. Blisters should be pricked with a needle and 
emptied to prevent their rupture and the exposure of the raw surface. 
Severe burns, leading to destruction of very extensive patches of 
skin, usually render a horse useless by reason of the contraction of the 
resulting scar, hence the treatment of such is rarely advisable, unless 
followed by a skillful plastic operation. In other cases a skillful trans- 
planting of epidermis, shaved from a healthy surface with a sharp 
razor, will secure the healing of a granulating wound which has proved 
obstinate to all other measures. In cases of burns with mineral acids 
(sulphuric, nitric or hydrochloric) avoid water, as that will develop 
heat, and cover the surface with dry whiting or chalk, and only when 
effervescence has ceased wash off with water. When the caustic has 
been a salt (copperas, bluestone, chloride of zinc, etc.) apply lime 
water or white of egg. If the irritant has been caustic potash, soda or 
ammonia, vinegar should be the first application. If sores result they 
may be treated like ordinary wounds. 

WOUNDS OF THE SKIN. 

These are divided into incised (clean cut) icounds, lacerated (torn) 
wounds, and contused (bruised) and punctured wounds. 

Incised wounds are the simplest, aud the sharper the instrument and 
the cleaner the cut the greater the hope of speedy healiug. Something, 
however, depends on the seat and direction of the wound ; thus oue 
running from before backward on the body, or from above downward 
in the limb, will not tend to be drawn open and gape as would one run- 
ning transversely on the body or limb. Again a wound on a joint and 
running across the limb will gape when the joint is bent. Again, a 
clean cut wound which has not been exposed to the air, and which 
lodges no foreign body and no septic nor infecting germ, will heal read- 
ily by simple adhesion, whereas those that, have been exposed aud con- 
tain matter foreign to the tissues will have healing delayed or pre- 
vented by the disturbing action of such bodies. 

Healing in wounds may be said to take place by these modes : 

(1) By primary adhesion, in which case the spherical (embryonic) 
cells, and the stellate connective tissue cells (placoids) thrown out on 
the surface of the wound, rapidly multiply and form a bond of union 
between the divided lips. Union by this means may be affected within 
twenty-four hours after the wound has been inflicted. Of all domestic 
animals, however, the horse is the least prone to such union, being more 
disposed to the formation of pus. 

(2) By granulation, which is the common form of healing in raw, ex- 
posed sores, in those containing foreign bodies and septic and infecting 
ferments; also in torn and contused wounds. In this form the wound 



444 

becomes covered with a layer of embryonic and placoid cells, of which 
the superficial ones degenerate into pus cells, and thus the surface is 
kept moist by a layer of whitish, creamy pus. In the deeper layer of 
cells minute loops of capillary blood-vessels start up, cause the small 
rounded elevations known as granulations. In this way the deeper 
layer of cells receiving a blood supply is transformed into connective 
tissue, and from its surface new loops of blood vessels start into the 
layer above, and thus layer after layer of new tissue is formed, and the 
breach caused by the wound is gradually filled up. The new tissue as 
formed undergoes a steady contraction, drawing in the adjacent skin 
over the wound, and hence large wouuds healed in this way have the 
skin more or less puckered around them. 

(3) By secondary adhesion, in which two granulating lips of a wound 
having been brought together and kept in apposition, union takes place 
through the medium of the cells, as in primary adhesion. 

(4) By scabbing, in which the exudation on the surface of the wound 
dries up into a firm scab, under which the process of repair goes on by 
the development of tissue from the deeper cells, as in adhesion. 

In treating clean, incised wounds, attempts should be made to secure 
healing by primary adhesion, even in the horse. Bleeding should first 
be arrested, or nearly so, by applying a cold or hot sponge, or by tying 
bleeding vessels, and the lips of the wound should then be closed ac- 
curately, without any twisting or overlapping. In small wounds pieces 
of sticking plaster may be used, the lips of the wound having first been 
smoothly shaved, so that they may adhere firmly. In larger wounds 
the wound may be sewed with a curved surgical needle and a silk 
thread dipped iu a solution of carbolic acid. The stitches may be con- 
tinued from end to end of the wound and the thread prevented from 
slipping and loosening by a knot at each end ; or the stitches may be 
independent, the two ends being tied together across the wound. In 
such cases they may be one quarter to one-third inch apart; or the lips 
of the wound may be pinned together, the pins in a simple skin wound 
being inserted one-eighth inch from the edge, and when both lips have 
been transfixed in this way a thread (or hair) carried successively 
around the two ends of the pin and made to describe a figure S will 
hold the wound close. When the stitching is not continuous from end 
to end of the wound the apposition of the edges will be rendered more 
perfect by the application of strips of sticking plaster in the iutervals. 

When efforts at primary union have failed and pus has formed, or 
fermentative changes have occurred on the raw surfaces and the lips 
gape more or less, some antiseptic dressing will be required, as in the 
case of lacerated and contused wouuds. 

In cases where an incised wound has had foreign bodies or septic 
ferments introduced into it, these should first be removed. A current 
of water that has been boiled and cooled is one of the best methods of 
cleansing a wound, and there is no objection to the addition of one- 



445 

twentieth of its amount of carbolic acid, as this will tend to destroy 
any germ life that might otherwise prove fatal to the healing process. 
Then the wound maybe stitched up as if it had been clean, and a daily 
dressing, of carbolic acid 1 part and sweet oil 10 parts, may be applied. 

For a wound on the convex surface of a joint, where stitches are not 
sufficient to keep the lips accurately applied to each other, the movement 
of the joint may be temporarily abolished by the application of a splint 
and bandage, and in any such case the bandage should be applied uni- 
formly from the hoof upward, as otherwise the limb below the baudage 
is liable to swell or even die. 

The treatment of contused, punctured, and lacerated wounds demands 
cleansing and antiseptic applications as for an incised wound, but as 
primary adhesion is next to impossible, the same accurate apposition of 
the lips by stitching is not so essential. If portions of skin or other 
tissue are so detached or crushed that they can not possibly live, they 
may be cut off, but if there is any doubt on this matter the injured por- 
tion should be left and every attempt should be made to preserve it. 
Such portions of the wound as are free from such fatally injured parts 
may be disinfected by the carbolic lotion referred to above, and stitched 
up like a clean wound. The severely injured parts may be left open to 
discharge, and the whole may be dressed daily with the carbolized oil, 
or with a solution of one part of mercuric chloride in one thousand 
parts water. 

Granulating wounds may be irrigated with the mercuric chloride solu- 
tion and if the granulations become inflamed (soft, flabby, exuberant, 
rising above the edges of the wound) they may be touched lightly with 
a stick of lunar caustic so as to leave them covered with a white film. 

In all wounds that fail to heal by primary union an elaborate anti- 
septic treatment is desirable, but the difficulty of applying this suc- 
cessfully to the horse in an ordinary stable would seem to forbid a 
lengthy description in a book of this kind. 



PLATE XXXV 



■i:i;v 




Vertical section, through skin. 

after Chauveau . 






Jfair diseased by 
Trichophyton Ton suran s. 

afterMe^nin. 




flair diseased by 
Achori^n Schonleini . 

after Me^nin. 



o oW ° " ° (j 



J&aosporon Adouirrii from. 
Parasitic Pityriasis in t7ie horse. 

after Me^n in. 



Haines, del. 



Sacketl* WilhelmsliUioCoNY 



DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 



PLATE XXXVI. 





Sarcoptes sc/zbiel, Tar.JSqui. 



C/iorioptes spccffiifenis. 




Psoroptes Zongirostris, varJSqui.. 



Demuxnyssiis gaUiriae. . 



Haines, del.afterMe£nin. 



Sackeiu WilhelmsUhoCoNY 



MITES THAT INFEST THE HORSE. 



WOUNDS AND THEIR TREATMENT. 



By CH. B. MICHENER, V. S., 

Professor of Cattle Pathology and Obstetrics at the Neiv York College of Veterinary Sur- 
geons, Inspector of the Bureau of Animal Industry, etc. 



Wounds are of different kinds, and are classified as incised, lacerated, 
contused, punctured, and gunshot. 

An incised wound, or cut, is made with some sharp body. The edges 
of the wound are smooth, as though cut with a knife. These wounds 
are the simplest we are called upon to treat. If they occur in fleshy 
parts, if blood-vessels, tendons, or joints are not injured, they soon re- 
cover and often without any treatment whatever. When bleeding to 
any considerable extent follows, and this is more likely to occur from 
incised thau lacerated or contused wounds, we must first of all stop the 
flow of blood before attempting to close the wound itself or apply any 
other treatment. Hemorrhage may take place from either arteries or 
veins. If from arteries, the blood is bright red or scarlet in color, and 
flows in jerks or jets ; if from veins, it is darker in color and the flow is 
regular. Bleeding from large vessels may be stopped by compress ban- 
dages, torsion, hot iron, and ligatures. 

By bandages. — If the blood is from an artery, the pressure should be 
applied between the wound and the center of circulation, i. e., towards 
the body ; if from a vein, toward the extremities. Torsion is to be ap- 
plied by the artery forceps grasping the divided vessel and twisting it 
the proper number of times. The hot iron (budding iron) may also be 
used to sear the end of a blood vessel and thus stop bleeding. Of all 
means, however, employed to stop the flow of blood from a large vessel 
a ligature is the best. The divided end of the artery or vein is to be 
caught up and firmly tied about one-half inch from its division. Should 
profuse bleeding occur from the incision of a great number of small ves- 
sels, it is best stopped by compresses moistened with the tincture of the 
chloride of iron or other astringents. Any moderately tight bandage 
of oakum, tow, cob-webs, etc., will stop the hemorrhage, often without 
the medicaments referred to. 

When we have controlled the bleeding our next step is to cleanse the 
.wpu.n.d. .This is to be, accomplished by .allowing warm water to flow or 

447 



448 

trickle over the wound. Never rub an incised wound with any coarse 
substance. When the incision is parallel to the muscular fibers the 
wound does not gape to any extent. Stitches placed about an inch 
apart are here advisable, or we may keep the edges of the wound to- 
gether by means of a bandage. If the incision be across the direction 
of the muscular fibers gaping ensues and a " pocket " forms at the bot- 
tom of the wound in which lodge blood and pus. In my experience 
stitches do more harm than good in such cases. They irritate the parts 
and soon cause sloughing of the skin. A bandage, so applied as to 
bring the edges of the wound as close together as possible, is here pref- 
erable. It should be applied from below upwards, as this encourages 
union from the bottom, and serves to prevent the accumulation of pus 
in the wound. But little is to be done after this. By means of a soft 
sponge apply some simple antiseptic wash, carbolic acid 1 part, glycer- 
ine 10 to 15 parts. If the parts become very much soiled they are to 
be gently washed with castile or carbolic soap and hot water. Should 
proud flesh appear it is to be treated with burnt alum, powdered blue- 
stone, etc. Officious meddling and frequent " dressing " of such wounds 
do more harm than good. 

Incised wounds of teudons, or of any vital part of the body, require 
professional attendance, and can not be separately treated of here. 

Lacerated and contused wounds may be described together, although 
there is of course this difference, that in contused wouuds there is no 
break or laceration of the skin. Lacerated wouuds, however, are as a 
rule also contused — the surrounding tissues are bruised to a greater or 
lesser extent. While such wouuds may not appear at first sight to be 
as serious as incised wounds they are commonly very much more so. 
Lacerations and contusions, when extensive, are always to be regarded 
as dangerous. Many horses die from septic infection or mortification as 
as a result of these injuries. We find in severe contusions an infiltration 
of blood into the surrounding tissues; disorganization and mortifica- 
tion follow, and involve often the deeper seated structures. Abscesses, 
siugle or multiple, may also result and call for special treatment. 

In wounds that are lacerated the amouut of hemorrhage is mostly 
inconsiderable ; even very large blood vessels are thus torn apart with- 
out inducing a fatal result. The edges of the wound are ragged aud 
uneven. These wounds are produced by some blunt object, as where a 
horse runs against fences, board piles, the comers of buildings, or 
where he is struck by the pole or shafts of another team, falling on 
rough, irregular stones, etc. 

Treatment. — In lacerated wounds great care must at first be exercised 
in examining or probing to the very bottom of the rent or tear to see 
if any foreign body be present. Very often splinters of wood or bits 
of stone or dirt are thus lodged, aud unless removed prevent the wound 
from healing; or if it should heal the wound soon opeusagaiu, discharging 
a thin, gluey matter that is characteristic of the presence of some object 



449 

in the parts. After a thorough exploration these wounds are to be 
carefully and patiently fomented with warm water, to which has been 
added carbolic acid in the proportion of 1 part to 100 of water. Rarely, 
if ever, are stitches to be inserted in lacerated wounds. The surround- 
ing tissues and skin are so weakened in vitality and structure by the 
contusion that stitches will not hold ; they only irritate the parts. It 
is better to endeavor to secure coadaptation by means of bandages, 
plasters, or collodion. One essential in the treatment of lacerated 
wounds is to secure a free exit for the pus. If the orifice of the wound 
is too high, or if pus is found to be burrowing in the tissues beneath 
the opening, we must then make a counter opening as low as possible. 
This will admit of the wound being thoroughly washed out, at first 
with warm water, and afterward injected with some mild astringent 
and antiseptic wash, as chloride of zinc, 1 dram to a pint of water. A 
depending opening must be maintained until the wound ceases to dis- 
charge. Repeated hot fomentations over the region of lacerated wounds 
afford much relief and should be persisted in. 

Bruises are nothing but contused wounds, where the skin has not 
been ruptured. There is often considerable solution of continuity of 
the parts under the skin, subcutaneous hemorrhage, etc., which may 
result in local death — mortification — and slough of the bruised part. 
If the bruise or contusion is not so severe, very many cases are quickly 
cured by constant fomentation with hot water for from two to four hours. 
The water should be allowed, about this time, to gradually become cool 
and then cold. Cold fomentation must then be kept up for another 
hour or two. Dry the parts thoroughly and quickly, and bathe them 
freely with camphor 1 ounce, sweet oil 8 ounces. A dry, light bandage 
should then be applied, the horse allowed rest, and, if necessary, the 
camphorated oil may be repeated for two or three days. If, however, 
the wound is so severe that sloughing must ensue, we must encourage 
this by poultices made of linseed meal, wheat bran, turnips, onions, 
bread and milk, or hops. Charcoal is to be sprinkled over the surface 
of the poultice when the wound is bad smelling. After the slough 
has fallen off the wound is to be dressed with antiseptic washes of car- 
bolic acid, chloride of zinc, permanganate of potash, etc. If granulat- 
ing (filling up) too fast, use burnt alum, or air-slaked lime. Besides 
this local treatment we find that the constitutional symptoms of fever 
and inflammation call for measures to prevent or control them. This 
is best done by placing the injured animal on soft or green food. A 
physic of Barbadoes aloes, 1 ounce, should be given as soon as possible 
after the accident. Sedatives, as tincture of aconite root, 15 drops 
every two or three hours, and ounce doses of saltpeter twice or three 
times a day, are also to be administered. When the symptoms of fever 
are abated, and if the discharges from the wound are abundant, the 
strength of our patient must be supported by good food and tonics. 
One of the best tonics is as follows : Powdered sulphate of iron, pow- 
11035 29 



450 

dered gentian, and powdered ginger, of each 4 ounces. Mix thoroughly 
and give a heaping tablespoonfnl twice a day on the feed, or as a 
drench. 

Punctured, wounds are produced by the penetration of a sharp or blunt 
pointed substance, as a thorn, fork, nail, etc., and the orifice of these 
wounds is always small in proportion to their depth. In veterinary 
practice punctured wounds are much more common than the others. 
They involve the feet most frequeutlj', next the legs, and often the 
head and face from nails protrudiug through the stalls and trough. 
They are not only the most frequent but they are also the most serious. 
One circumstance rendering them so is the lack of attention that they 
at first receive. The external wound is so small that but little or no 
importance is attached to it, yet in a short time swelling, pain, and acute 
inflammation often of a serious character, are manifested. Considering 
the most common of the punctured wounds we must give precedence to 
those of the feet. Horses worked in cities, about iron works, around 
building places, etc., are most likely to receive " nails in the feet." The 
animal treads upon nails, pieces of iron or screws, and forces them into 
the soles of the feet. If the nail, or whatever it is that has punctured 
the foot, is fast in some large or heavy body, and is withdrawn as the 
horse lifts his foot, lameness may last for only a few steps ; but unless 
properly attended to at once he will be found in a day or two to be ex- 
cruciatingly lame in the injured member. If the foreign body remains 
in the foot he gradually grows worse from the time of puncture until 
the cause is discovered and removed. If, when shoeing, a nail is driven 
into the "quick" (sensitive laminae) and allowed to remain, the horse 
gradually evinces more pain from day to day ; but if the nail has at once 
been removed by the smith lameness does not, as a rule, show itself for 
some days; or, if the nail is simply driven " too close," not actually 
pricking the horse, he may not show any lameness for a week or even 
much longer. At this point it is due the blacksmith to say that, con- 
sidering how thin the walls of some feet are, the uneasiness of many 
horses while shoeing, the ease with which a nail is diverted from its 
course by striking an old piece of nail left in the wall, or from the nail 
itself splitting, the wonder is not that so many horses are pricked or 
nails driven " too close, " but rather that many more are not so injured. 
It is not always carelessness or ignorance on the part of the smith, by 
any means, that is to account for this accident. Bad and careless 
shoers we do meet with, but let us be honest and say that the rarity of 
these accidents points rather to the general care and attention given by 
these much-abused mechanics. 

From the construction of the horse's foot (being encased in an im- 
permeable horny box), and from the elasticity of the horn closing the 
orifice, punctured wounds of the feet are almost always productive of 
lameness. Inflammation results, and as there is no relief afforded by 
swelling and no escape for the product of inflammation, this matter 



451 

must and does burrow between the sole or wall and the sensitive parts 
within it until it generally opens " between hair and hoof." We can 
thus see why pain is so much more severe, why tetanus (lockjaw) more 
frequently follows wounds of the feet, and why, from the extensive, or 
at times complete, separation and "casting" of the hoof, these wounds 
must always be regarded with grave apprehension. 

Symptoms and treatment— A practice which, if never deviated from — 
that of picking up each foot, cleaning the sole, and thoroughly examin- 
ing the foot each and every time the horse comes into the stable — will 
enable us to reduce the serious consequences of punctured wounds of 
the feet to the minimum. If the wound has resulted from pricking, 
lameness follows soon after shoeing ; if from the nails being driven too 
close, it usually appears from four to five days or a week after receiv- 
ing the shoe. We should always inquire as to the time of shoeing, ex- 
amine the shoe carefully and see whether it has been partially pulled 
and the horse stepped back upon some of the nails or the clip. The 
pain from these wounds is lancinating ; the horse is seen to raise and 
lower the limb or hold it from the ground altogether; often he points 
the foot, flexes the leg, and knuckles at the fetlock. Swelling of the 
fetlock and back tendons is also frequently seen and is apt to mislead 
us. The foot must be carefully examined, and this can not be properly done 
without removing the shoe. The nails should be drawn separately and 
carefully examined. If there is no escape of matter from the nail-holes, 
or if the nails themselves are not moist, we must continue our examina- 
tion of the foot by carefully pinching or tapping it at all parts. With a 
little practice we can detect the spot where pain is the greatest or dis- 
cover the delicate line or scar left at the point of entrance of the foreign 
body. The entire sole is then to be thinned, after which we are to care- 
fully cut down upon the point where pain is greatest upon pressure, 
and, finally, through the sole at this spot. When the matter has escaped, 
the sole, so far as it was undermined by pus, is to be removed. The foot 
must now be poulticed for one or two days and afterward dressed with 
a compress of oakum saturated with carbolic-acid solution or other anti- 
septic dressing. 

If we discover a nail or other object in the foot the principal direction, 
after having removed the offending body, is to cut away the sole, in a 
funnel shape, down to the sensitive parts beneath. This is imperative, 
and if a good free opening has been made and is maintained for a few 
days, hot fomentations and antiseptic dressings applied, the cure is 
mostly easy, simple, quick, and permanent. The horse should be shod 
with a leather sole under the shoe, first of all applying tar and oakum 
to prevent any dirt from entering the wound. In some instances nails 
may puncture the flexor tendons, the coffin bone, or enter the coffin 
joint. Such injuries are always serious, their recovery slow and tedious, 
and the treatment so varied and difficult that the services of a veteri- 
narian will be necessary. 



452 

Punctured wounds of joints — Open joints. — These wounds are more or 
less frequent. They are always serious, and often result in anchylosis 
(stiffening) of the joint or death of the animal. The joints mostly 
punctured are the hock, fetlock, or knee, though other joints may of 
course suffer this injury. As the symptoms and treatment are much 
the same for all, I will only describe this accident as it occurs in the 
hock joint. Probably the most common mode of injury is from the stab 
of a fork, but it may result from the kick of another horse that is newly 
shod, or in many other ways. At first the horse evinces but slight pain 
or lameness. The owner discovers a small wound scarcely larger than 
a pea, and pays but little attention to it. In a few days, however, the 
pain and lameness become excessive ; the horse can no longer bear any 
weight upon the injured leg; the joint is very much swollen and pain- 
ful upon pressure; there are well-marked symptoms of constitutional 
disturbance — quick pulse, hurried breathing, high temperature, 103° to 
106° Fahr., the appetite is lost, thirst is present, the horse reeks with 
sweat, and shows by an anxious countenance the pain he suffers. He 
may lie down, though mostly he persists in standing, and the opposite 
limb becomes greatly swollen from bearing the entire weight and strain 
for so long a time. The wound, which at first appeared so insignificant, 
is now constantly discharging a thin, whitish or yellowish fluid — joint- 
oil or water, which becomes coagulated about the mouth of the wound 
and adheres to the part in clots like jelly, or resembling somewhat the 
white of an egg. Not infrequently the joint opens at different places, 
discharging at first a thin bloody fluid that soon assumes the character 
above described. 

Treatment of these wounds is most difficult and unsatisfactory. In 
my own experience we can do much to prevent this array of symptoms 
if the case is seen early, within the first twenty four or forty-eight 
hours after the injury, but when inflammation of the joint is once fairly 
established the case becomes one of grave tendencies. Whenever a 
punctured wound of a joint is noticed, even though apparently of but 
small moment, we should withoutthe least delay apply a strong canthar- 
idea blister over the entire joint, being even careful to fill the orifice 
of the wound with the blistering ointment. This treatment is almost 
always effectual. It operates to perform a cure in two ways — first, the 
swelling of the skin and tissues underneath it completely closes the 
wound and prevents the ingress of air; second, by the superficial in- 
flammation established itacts to check and abate all deep-seated inflam- 
mation. In the great majority of instances, if pursued soon after the 
accident, this treatment performs a cure in about one week, but should 
the changes described as occurring later in the joint have already taken 
place, we must then treat by cooling lotions and the application to the 
wound of chloride of zinc, 10 grains to the ounce of water, or a paste 
made up of flour and alum. A bandage is to hold these applications in 
place, which is only to be removed when swelling of the leg or increas- 



t 453 

ing febrile symptoms demand it. In the treatment of open joints our 
chief aim must be to close the orifice as soon as possible. For this 
reason repeated probing or even injections are contra-indicated. The 
only probing of an open joint that is to be sanctioned is on our first 
visit, when we should carefully examine the wound for foreign bodies 
or dirt, and after removing them the probe must not again be used. 
The medicines used to coagulate the synovial discharge are best simply 
applied to the surface of the wound, ou pledgets of tow, and held in 
place by bandages. Internal treatment is also indicated in those cases 
of open joints where the suffering is great. At first we should admin- 
ister a light physic, and follow this up with sedatives and anodynes, as 
directed for contused wounds. Later, however, we should give quinine 
or salicylic acid in one-dram doses two or three times a day. 

Wounds of tendons are similar to open joints in that there is an escape 
of synovial fluid, " sinew water." Where the tendons are simply punc- 
tured by a thorn, nail, or fork, we must, after a thorough exploration 
of the wound for any remaining foreign substance, treat with the flour 
and alum paste, bandages, etc., as for open joint. Should the skin and 
tendons be divided the case is even more serious and often incurable. 
There is always a large bed of granulations (proud flesh) at the seat of 
injury, and a thickening more or less pronounced remains. When the 
back tendons of the leg are severed we should apply at once a high-heel 
shoe (which is to be gradually lowered as healing advances) and band- 
age firmly with a compress moistened with a ten-grain chloride of zinc 
solution. When proud flesh appears this is best kept under control by 
repeated applications of a red-hot iron. Mares that are valuable as 
brood animals, and stock horses, should always be treated for this in- 
jury, as, even though blemished, their value is not seriously impaired. 
The length and time required and the expense of treatment will cause us 
to hesitate in attempting a cure if the subject is old and comparatively 
valueless. 

Gunshot wounds. — These wounds are so seldom met with in our ani- 
mals that an extended reference to them seems unnecessary. If a 
wound has been made by a bullet a careful examination should be made 
to ascertain if the ball has passed through or out of the body. If it has 
not we must then probe for the ball, and if it can be located it is to be 
cut out when practicable to do so. Oftentimes a ball may be so lodged 
that it can not be removed, and it then may become encysted and re- 
main for years without giving rise to any inconvenience. It is often 
difficult to locate a bullet, as it is very readily deflected by resistances 
met with after entering the body. Should bones be struck by a ball 
they are frequently shattered and splintered to such an extent as to war- 
rant us in having the animal destroyed. A gunshot wound, when ir- 
reparable injury has not beendone,is to be treated the same as punctured 
wounds, i. e., remove the foreign body if possible, and apply hot fomen- 
tations or poultices to the wound until suppuration is fairly established. 



454 

Antiseptic and disinfectant injections may then be used. Should pus 
accumulate in the tissues openings must be made at the most depend- 
ing parts for its escape. Wounds from shotguns if fired close to the 
animal are serious. They are virtually lacerated and contused wounds. 
Keniove all the shot possible from the wound, and treat as directed 
for contusions. When small shot strikes the horse from a distance it 
sticks in the skin or only goes through it. The shot grains must be 
picked out, but as a rule this "peppering" of the skin amouuts to but 
little. 

Chafing by the harness — saddle or collar galls. — Wounds or abrasions 
of this description are very commonly met with during the spring plow- 
ing, particularly in " new ground," or from ill-fitting saddles or collars 
at any time of the year. Collars too large or too small are equally 
productive of this trouble. In the spring of the year, when the horse 
has been unused to steady work for some months, the skin is tender 
and easily abraded. The horse, from being wintered on a scanty allow- 
ance of grain, is soft, sweats easily, and if the collar and shoulders are 
not properly attended to chafing of the skin is almost sure to follow. 
The harness should be repaired, cleaned, and oiled before using, and the 
collar in particular should be thoroughly cleansed after every day's use. 
The shoulders are to be frequently washed with cold water, and after- 
ward bathed with white-oak bark tea, alcohol, or other astringents. 
Should ill-fitting or badly made harness or saddles gall a horse, they 
must be refitted at once, or laid aside for other and better ones. 

The treatment of such abrasions is simple and effective if the cause be 
removed without delay. The parts must be thoroughly bathed in soapy 
water, allowing the lather to remain on the abraded surface. There are 
many remedies for harness galls. Among them may be mentioned alco- 
hol, 1 pint, in which are well shaken the whites of two eggs; a solution 
of nitrate of silver, 10 grains to the ounce of water; sugar of lead or 
sulphate of zinc, 20 grains to an ounce of water ; carbolic acid, 1 part 
in 15 parts of glycerine, and so on almost without end. Any simple as- 
tringent wash or powder will effect a cure provided the sores are not 
irritated by friction. If the animal must continue his work the harness 
must be padded or chambered. 

Burns and scalds. — Wounds from burning or scalding are rare in the 
domestic animals, but when extensive they prove very troublesome and 
are often fatal. According to the severity of the burn we find the skin 
simply reddened, vesicles (blisters) may be produced, or the part may 
be literally roasted or boiled, causing complete destruction of the tissues 
and sloughing. When a large surface of the skin is burned or scalded 
the animal (if he does not die at once from shock) will soon show symp- 
toms of fever — shivering, coldness of the extremities, weakness, rest- 
lessness, quick, feeble pulse, sighing breathing, etc. 

The treatment in such cases must be prompt and energetic. Stimu- 
lants, such as whisky with milk and eggs, are to be frequently given. 



455 

Quinine and salicylic acid, of each 1 dram, should also be administered 
twice a day. The burned surface must be immediately bathed with 
equal parts of lime-water and linseed oil, and afterwards dredged with 
as much hour as can be made to adhere. If these cau not be obtained 
cover the parts with flour paste, layers of cotton, or anything to exclude 
the air. Nitrate of silver, 5 grains to the ounce of water, or carbolic 
acid, 1 part to 50 of water, afford great relief if frequently applied. 
When the slough takes place we must support the animal's strength 
with good food and tonics, and treat the raw surface the same as other 
granulating wounds. 

ABSCESSES. 

These consist of accumulations of pus within circumscribed walls, 
at different parts of the body, and may be classed as acute, and cold or 
chronic abscesses. 

Acute abscesses follow as the result of local inflammation in glands, 
muscular tissue, or even bones. They are very common in the two 
former. The abscesses most commonly met with in the horse (and the 
ones which will be here described) are those of the salivary glands, 
occurring during the existence of " strangles" or " colt distemper." The 
glands behind or under the jaw are seen to slowly increase in size, be- 
coming firm, hard, hot, and painful. At first the swelling is uniformly 
hard and resisting over its entire surface, but in a little while becomes 
soft — fluctuating — at some portion, mostly in the center. From this 
time on the abscess is said to be " pointing" or "coming to a head," 
which is shown by a small elevated or projecting prominence, which at 
first is dry, but soon becomes moist with transuded serum. The hairs 
over this part loosen and fall off, and in a short time the abscess opens, 
the contents escape, and the cavity gradually fills up — heals by granu- 
lations. 

Abscesses in muscular tissue are usually the result of bruises or in- 
juries. In all cases where abscesses are forming we should hurry the 
ripening process by frequent hot fomentations and poultices. When 
they are very tardy in their development a blister over their surface is 
advisable. It is a common rule with surgeons to open an abscess as 
soon as pus can be plainly felt, but this practice can scarcely be recom- 
mended to owners of stock indiscriminately, since this little operation 
frequently requires an exact knowledge of anatomy. It will usually 
be found the better plan to encourage the full ripening of an abscess 
and allow it to open of itself. This is imperative if the abscess is in the 
region of joints, etc. When open, we must not squeeze the walls of the 
abscess to any extent. They may be very gently pressed with the fin- 
gers at first to remove the clots — inspissated pus — but after this the 
orifice is simply to be kept open by the introduction of a whalebone 
probe, should it be disposed to heal too soon. If the opening is at too 
high a level another should be made into the lowest portion of the ab- 



456 

scess. Hot fomentations or poultices are sometimes required for a day 
or two after an abscess has opened, and are particularly indicated when 
the base of the abscess is hard and indurated. As a rule, injections 
into the cavity of abscesses are not indicated, though in cases of serous 
abscesses (if one may be allowed such latitude of terms), as cysts of the 
elbow, knee, etc., astringent injections — sulphate of zinc, 15 grains to the 
ouuee of water — are required to cause adhesions of the walls of the 
cavity and prevent it from refilling. If abscesses are foul and bad- 
smelling their cavities must be syringed with a weak solution of car- 
bolic acid or other antiseptics. 

Gold abscess is the term applied to those large, indolent swellings that 
are the result of a low or chronic form of inflammation, in the center of 
which there is a small collection of pus. These are mostly met with at 
the base of the neck and in front of the shoulder joint. The swelling is 
diffuse and of enormous extent, but slightly hotter than surrounding 
parts, and not very painful upon pressure. There is a pronounced 
stiffness, rather than pain, evinced upon moving the animal. Such ab- 
scesses have the appearance of a hard tumor, surrounded by a softer 
cedeuiatous swelling, involving the tissues to the extent of a foot or 
more in all directions from the tumor. This diffused swelling gradually 
subsides and leaves the large, hardened mass somewhat well defined. 
One of the characteristics of cold abscesses is their tendency to remain 
in the same condition for a great length of time. There is neither heat 
nor soreness; no increase nor lessening in the size of the tumor; it re- 
mains statu quo. If, however, the animal should be put to work for a 
short time the irritation of the collar causes the surrounding tissues to 
again assume an cedematous condition, which, after a few days' rest, 
disappear, leaving the tumor as before or but slightly larger. Upon 
careful manipulation we may discover what appears to be a fluid deep 
seated in the center of the mass. The quantity of matter so contained 
is very small — often not more than a tablespoouful— and for this reason 
it can not, in all cases, be detected. 

Cold abscesses are mostly, if not always, caused by the long-contin- 
ued irritation of a loose and badly fitting collar. There is a slow in- 
flammatory action going on, which results in the formation of a small 
quantity of matter, inclosed in very thick and but partially organized 
walls, that are not as well defined as is the circumference of fibrous 
tumors, which they most resemble. 

Treatment. — The means recommended to bring the acute abscess "to 
a head " are but rarely effectual with this variety; or, if successful, too 
much time has been occupied in the cure. We must look for other and 
more rapid methods of treatment. These consist in, first of all, care- 
fully exploring the tumor for the presence of pus. The incisions must 
be made over the softest part, and carried deep into the tumor (to its 
very bottom if necessary), and the matter allowed to escape. After this, 
and whether we have found matter or not, we must induce an active 



.457 

inflammation of the tumor in order to promote solution of the thick walls 
of the abscess. This may bedooe by inserting well into the incision a 
piece of oakum or cotton saturated with turpentine, carbolic acid, tinc- 
ture of iodine, etc., or we may pack the incision with powdered sul- 
phate of zinc and keep the orifice plugged for twenty-four hours. These 
agents set up a destructive inflammation of the walls. Suppuration fol- 
lows, and this should now be encouraged by hot fomentations and poul- 
tices. The orifice must be kept open, and should it be disposed to heal 
we must again introduce some of the agents above described. A fa- 
vored treatment with many, and it is probably the best, is to plunge a 
red-hot iron to the bottom of the incision, and thoroughly sear all parts 
of the walls of the abscess. This is to be repeated after the first slough 
has taken place, if the walls remain thickened and indurated. 

It is useless to waste time with fomentations, poultices, or blisters in 
the treatment of cold abscesses, since, though apparently removed by 
such methods, they almost invariably return again when the horse is 
put to work. Extirpation by the knife is not practicable, as the walls 
of the tumor are not sufficiently defined. If treated as above directed, 
and properly fitted with a good collar after healing, there will not re- 
main any track, trace, or remembrance of the large, unsightly mass. 

FISTULJE. 

The word fistula is properly applied to sinuous pipes or ducts leading 
from cavities to the surface of the body, through which a discharge is 
constantly taking place. They are lined by a false or adventitious 
membrane, and show no disposition to heal. Fistulse may then exist 
at any part, but the name has come to be commonly accepted as appli- 
cable only to such discharges taking place from the withers, and we 
shall refer to this location when using the term. 

Poll evil is a fistula upon the poll, and in no sense differs from fistu- 
lous withers except as to location. The description of fistula will apply 
then, in the main, to poll evil as well. Fistulas are particularly liable 
to occur at either of these locations from the disposition of the muscles 
and tendinous expansions, which favor the burrowing of pus and its 
retention. Fistulse follow as a result of abscesses, bruises, wounds, or 
long continued irritation by the harness. Among the more common 
causes of fistula of the poll — poll evil — are chafing by the halter or heavy 
bridle; blows from the butt end of the whip; the horse striking his 
head against the hayrack, beams of the ceiling, low doors, etc. Fis- 
tulous withers are seen mostly in those horses that have thick necks 
as well as those that are very high in the withers ; or, among saddle 
horses, those that are very low on the withers, the saddle here riding for- 
ward and bruising the parts. They are often caused by bad-fitting col- 
lars or saddles, by direct injuries from blows, and from the horse roll- 
ing upon rough or sharp stones. In either of these locations, ulcers of 
the skin, or simple abscesses, if not properly and punctually treated 



458 

may become fistulae. The pus burrows and finds lodgment deep down 
between the muscles, and only escapes when the sinus becomes sur- 
charged or during motion of the parts, when the matter is squeezed 
out. 

Symptoms. — These of course will vary according to the progress made 
by the fistula. Following an injury we may often notice soreness or 
stiffness of the front legs, and upon careful examination of the withers 
we will see small tortuous lines running from the point of irritation 
downward and backward over the region of the shoulder. These are 
superficial lymphatics, and are swollen and painful to the touch. In a 
day or two a swelling is noticed on one or both sides of the dorsal ver- 
tebrae, which is hot and painful and rapidly enlarging. The pain may 
at this time subside somewhat, the stiffness disappear, but the swelling 
continues and increases in size. It fluctuates upon pressure, and either 
opens or its contents become inspissated, dry up, leaving a tumor 
that gradually develops the common characteristics of a fibrous tumor. 
When the enlargement has opened we should carefully examine its 
cavity, as on its condition will wholly depend our treatment. 

In the earliest stage, when there is soreness, enlarged lymphatics, but 
no well-marked swelling, the trouble may be frequently aborted. To 
do this requires both general and local treatment. A physic should be 
given, and the horse receive 1 ounce of powdered saltpeter three times 
a day in his water or feed. If the fever runs high, 20-drop doses of 
tincture of aconite root every two hours may be administered. Locally 
we will find much relief by pouring cold water from a height upon the 
inflamed spot for an hour at a time three or four times a day. Cooling 
lotions, muriate of ammonia, or saltpeter and water, sedative washes, 
as tincture of opium and aconite, chloroform liniment, or camphorated 
oil are also to be frequently applied. I have seen a number of cases 
presenting these initial symptoms of fistula thus aborted that required 
no other treatment than the avoidance of the original cause. When, 
however, the formation of pus is inevitable, this must be hurried as 
much as possible. Hot fomentations and poultices are to be constantly 
used, and as soon as fluctuation can be plainly felt the abscess wall is to 
be opened at its loivest point. In this procedure lies our hope of a 
speedy cure. If the parts are so laid open by the knife that the pus 
must escape as fast as it is formed, and where there is left no possibility 
of its burrowing between the muscles, forming pockets or sinuses, the 
parts rapidly and permanently heal without any mediation whatever, 
as though we had been dealing with a simple abscess of the withers, and 
not a true fistula at all. 

Attention is again called to the directions given above as to the neces- 
sity of probing the cavity when opened. If upon a careful examination 
with the probe we find that there are no pockets, no sinuses, but a sim- 
ple, regular abscess wall, the indication for treatment is to make an 
opening from below so that the matter must all escape. Earely is any- 



459 

thing- more needed than to keep the orifice open and to bathe or inject 
the parts with some simple antiseptic wash that is not irritant or caustic. 
A low opening and cleanliness constitute the essential and rational 
treatment. If caustics are inserted, they cause sloughing of healthy 
tissues and favor the formation of sinuses by producing sloughs below 
the point of incision. If the abscess has existed for some time and has 
not opened, its walls become thickened, the pus granular or inspissated, 
then, after an opening has been made by the knife and the contents 
washed and squeezed out as thoroughly as possible, the plan of treat- 
ment is materially different. There is enormous thickening of the walls, 
which must be destroyed and sloughed out by caustics. The best plan 
here is to make the first incision in the highest point of the swelling, intro- 
duce a piece of caustic potash (fused) 1 to 2 inches in length, carefully 
plug the opening with oakum or cotton, and secure the horse so that he 
can not disturb the parts by rubbing or biting them. The skin of the 
shoulder and entire leg must be thoroughly greased with lard or oil in 
order to prevent the caustic (should it escape) from excoriating the skin 
over which it flows. Twenty-four hours after the introduction of the 
caustic the plug is to be removed and hot fomentations applied. As 
soon as the discharge is again established we must make another open- 
ing with the knife or seton needle as low as possible, and keep this open 
with a seton. The object of making the first incision ou top is to insure 
the retention of the caustic until it has attacked the entire inner sur- 
face of the cavity. If this is done the caustic causes sloughing of every 
portion of the diseased parts, leaving a healthy granulating surface 
underneath, which only requires that the depending orifice be kept 
open and the cavity washed out with a weak antiseptic solution once or 
twice a week to effect a cure. In many cases of fistula there is more 
than one sinus or pipe that must be explored, laid open with the 
knife if possible, or opened through its bottom by means of a sharp 
seton needle, passing a tape through the openings, and retaining it in 
this position for some time. If the pipes are directed straight downward 
between the shoulder blade and the spine it is difficult or impossible to 
make a counter opening, and the case becomes serious or intractable. 
Caustic solutions must now be injected carefully into the sinuses with 
the hope of reaching every diseased part. Probably the best is gran- 
ular chloride of zinc, 1 ounce to a half pint of water. This should be 
injected three times during one week, after which a weak solution of 
the same, or sulphate of zinc, is to be occasionally injected. Pressure 
must be applied from below, and endeavors made in this manner to heal 
the different pipes from the bottom. Should the bones of the withers or 
the shoulder blade be diseased the complication is again serious, and 
these must be scraped or portions of them removed, requiring the aid 
of the veterinary surgeon. 

In those cases of fistula where the tumor is large and hard, yet not 
sufficiently defined to admit of extirpation with the knife, we may often 



460 

effect a cure by making a shallow incision under the skin, over the 
center of the tumor, aud inserting from 20 to 30 grains of arsenious acid 
— powdered arsenic — wrapped in a single layer of tissue paper, and 
retaining in the same manner as before directed for the caustic potassa. 
No further treatment is necesssary for some time. In about ten days 
to two weeks there will have taken place a large, deep slough, leaving 
a very ugly looking granulating wound, which, however, gradually con- 
tracts during the healing process and results in the entire disappear- 
ance of the tumor. 

It is to be inferred from the foregoing that, even though fully estab- 
lished, fistulse of the withers or poll are, in the majority of cases, cura- 
ble. They often require much time and patient attention. The sinuses 
must be opened at their inferior extremity and kept open. At first 
caustic injections or applications must be thoroughly applied once or 
twice, after which mild astringent antiseptic washes and cleanliness 
complete the cure. In those cases where the sinuses or pipes are so 
directed that counter openings can not be made ; where there are dis- 
eased conditions of the bones, articulations, etc., that can not be reached, 
the horse had often best be destroyed at once. 

It is not at all unusual for fistulsB to break out again after having 
healed. This should not discourage us of a complete cure, as there is 
mostly only some small particle of diseased tissue remaining, caught, 
probably, in the healing of the orifice. A small abscess forms, poiuts, 
and opens. This abscess should be injected with a solution of sulphate 
of zinc, 20 grains to the ounce of water, every second or third day until 
entirely healed. 

Fistulae of the foot — quittor — should be treated on the same principle 
as those already described. 

When fistulous tracts are found at unusual points we must carefully 
examine the character and time of the discharges, and diligently probe 
the sinus to ascertain if the duct of some gland has not been opened, or 
if some foreign body, as a splinter of wood, etc., is not retained in the 
wound. In the first case — fistula of a gland duct — a competent veteri- 
narian must be called. In the second instance the foreign body is to be 
carefully cut down upon and removed, after which healing progresses 
rapidly and satisfactorily. 



GENERAL DISEASES. 



BY RUSH SHIPPEN HUIDEKOPER, M. D., Vet. 
Editor Journal of Comparative Medicine and Veterinary Archives, rhiladetyhia. 



INFLAMMATION. 

Synonyms : Inflammation Latin, from Inflammare, to flame, to burn ; 
Phlegmasia BXsyiiaffia, Greek ; Inflammation, French ; Inflammazione, 
Italian j Inflamacion, Spanish ; Entzundung, German. 

Definition. — Inflammation is a process of excessive nutrition — hyper- 
nutrition — of a living tissue, by which the latter may be altered in its 
functions while retaining for an indefinite time a morbid life; may be 
destroyed, as in abscesses, ulcers, necrosis, etc. ; or may be trans- 
formed into a new tissue, as in the healing of a previously injured part, 
the normal tissue in this case being replaced by a scar (cicatricial 
tissue), or by masses of calcareous deposits (lime salts). 

ANIMAL TISSUES. 

The non-professional reader may regard the animal tissues, which are 
subject to inflammation, as excessively simple structures, as similar, 
simple, and fixed in their organization as the joists and boards which 
frame a house, the bricks and iron coils of pipe which build a furnace, 
or the stones and mortar which make the support of a great railroad 
bridge. Yet while the principles of structure are thus simple, for the 
general understanding by the student who begins their study, the com- 
plete appreciation of the shades of variation, which differentiate one 
tissue from another, which define a sound tendon or ligament from a 
fibrous band, the result of disease filling in an old lesion and tying one 
organ with another, is as complicated as the nicest jointing of Chinese 
woodwork, the building of a furnace for the most difficult chemical 
analysis, or the construction of a bridge which will stand for ages and 
resist any force or weight. 

All tissues are composed of certain fundamental and similar elements 
which are governed by the same rules of life, though they may appear 
at first glance to be widely different. These are : {a) amorphous sub- 
stances ; (6) fibers j (c) cells. 

461 



462 

(a) Amorphous substances may be in liquid form, as in the fluid of the 
blood, which holds a vast amount of salts and nutritive matter in solu- 
tion, or they may be in a semi-liquid condition, as the plasma which 
infiltrates the loose meshes of connective tissue and lubricates the sur- 
face of some membranes, or they may be in the form of a glue or cement, 
fastening one structure to another, as a tendon or muscle end to a bone, 
or again they hold similar elements firmly together as in bone, where 
they form a stiff matrix which becomes impregnated with lime salts. 
Amorphous substances again form the protoplasm or nutritive element 
of cells or the elements of life. 

(6) Fibers are formed of elements of organic matter which have only 
a passive function. They can be assimilated to little strings or cords 
tangled one with another like a mass of waste yarn, woven regularly 
like a cloth or bound together like a rope. They are of two kinds, white 
connective tissue fibers, only slightly extensible, pliable, and very stron g, 
and yellow elastic fibers, elastic, curly, ramified, and very dense. These 
fibers once created require the constant presence of fluids around them 
in order to retain their functional condition, as a piece of harness 
leather demands continual oiling to keep its strength, but they undergo 
no change or alteration in their form until destroyed by death. 

(c) Cells, which may even be regarded as low forms of life, are masses 
of protoplasm or amorphous living matter with a nucleus and frequently 
a nucleolus or living germs, which are capable of assimilating nutriment 
or food, propagating themselves either into others of the same form or 
into fixed cells of another outward appearance and different function, 
but of the same constitution. It is simply in the mode of grouping of 
these elements that we have the variation in tissues, as: (1) loose con- 
nective tissue ; (2) aponeurosis and tendons ; (3) muscles; (4) cartilage; 
(5) bones; (6) epitheliaand endothelia; (7) nerves. 

(1) Loose connective tissue forms the great framework or scaffolding 
of the body, and is found under the skin, between the muscles sur- 
rounding the bones and blood vessels, and entering into the structures 
of almost all of the organs. In this the fibers are loosely meshed 
together like a sponge, leaving spaces in which the nutrient fluid and 
cells are irregularly distributed. This tissue we find in the skin, in the 
spaces between the organs of the body where fat accumulates, and as 
the framework of all glands. 

(2) Aponeurosis and tendons are structures which serve for the ter- 
mination of muscles and for their contention and for the attachment of 
bones together. In these the fibers are more frequent and dense and 
are arranged with regularity either crossing each other or lying parallel, 
and here the cells are found in minimum quantity. 

(3) Muscles. — In these the cells lie end to end, forming long fibers 
which have the power of contraction, and the connective tissue is in 
small quantity, serving the passive purpose of a band around the con- 
tractile elements. 



463 

(4) In cartilage a mass of firm amorphous substance, with no vas- 
cularity and little vitality, forms the bed for the chondroplasts or cells 
of this tissue. 

(5) Bone differs from the above in having the amorphous matter im- 
pregnated with lime salts, which gives it its rigidity and firmness. 

(6) Epitlielia and endoihelia, or the membranes which cover the body 
and line all of its cavities and glands, are made up of single or strati- 
fied and multiple layers of cells bound together by a glue of amorphous 
substance, and resting on a layer composed of more or less fibers. 
When the membrane serves for secreting or excreting purposes, as in 
the salivary glands or the kidneys, it is usually simple when it serves 
the mechanical purpose of protecting a part, as over the tongue or skin 
it is invariably multiple and stratified, the surface wearing away while 
new cells replace it from beneath. 

(7) In nerves, stellate cells are connected by their rays to each other, 
or to fibers which conduct the nerve impressions, or they act as recep- 
tacles and storehouses for them, just as the switch board of a telephone 
system serves to connect the various wires. 

All of these tissues are supplied with blood in greater or less quan- 
tity. The vascularity depends upon the function which the tissue is 
called upon to perform. If this is great, as in the tongue, the lungs, or 
the sensitive part of the foot, a large amount of blood is required ; if 
the labor is a passive one, as in cartilage, the membrane over the 
withers, or the tendons of the legs, the vessels only reach the periphery, 
and nutrition is furnished by imbibition of the fluids brought to their 
surface by the blood vessels. 

Blood is brought to the tissues by arterioles, or the small termina- 
tions of the arteries, and is carried off from them by the veinlets or the 
commencement of the veins. Between these two systems are small 
delicate networks of vessels called capillaries, which subdivide into a 
veritable lace- work so as to reach the neighborhood of every element. 

In health the blood passes through these capillaries with a regular 
current, the red cells or corpuscles floating rapidly in the fluid in the 
center of the channel, while the white or amoeboid cells are attracted to 
the walls oi che vessels and move very slowly. The supply of blood is 
regulated by the condition of repose or activity of the tissue, and under 
normal conditions the outflow compensates exactly the supply. The 
caliber of the blood vessels, and consequently the amount of blood which 
they carry, is governed by nerves of the sympathetic system in a healthy 
body with unerring regularity, but in a diseased organ the flow may 
cease or be greatly augmented. In health a tissue or organ receives its 
proper quantity of blood ; the nutritive elements are extracted for the sup- 
port of the tissue and for the product, which the function of the organ 
forms. The force required in the achievement of this is furnished by 
combustion of the hydro-carbons and oxygen brought by the arterial 
blood, then by the veins this same fluid passes off, less its oxygen. 



464 

loaded with the waste product?, which are the result of the worn out 
and disintegrated tissues, and of those which have undergone combus- 
tion. The above brief outline indicates the process of nutrition of the 
tissues. 

Hyper-nutrition or excessive nutrition of a tissue may be normal or 
morbid. If the latter the tissue becomes congested or iuflamed. 

CONGESTION. 

Congestion is an unnatural accumulation of blood in a part. Excessive 
accumulation of blood may be normal, as in blushing or in the red face 
which temporarily follows a violent muscular effort, or, as in the stom- 
ach or liver during digestion, or in the lungs after severe work, from 
which, in the latter case, it is shortly relieved by a little rapid breath- 
ing. The term congestion, however, usually indicates a morbid condi- 
tion, with more or less lasting effects. Congestion is active or passive. 
The former is produced by an increased supply of blood to the part, the 
latter by an obstacle preventing the escape of blood from the tissue. 
In either case there is an increased supply of blood, and as a result in- 
creased combustion and augmented nutrition. .. 

Active congestion is caused by : 

(1) Functional activity. — Any organ which is constantly or excessively 
used is habituated to hold an unusual quantity of blood; the vessels 
become dilated ; if overstrained the walls become weakened, lose their 
elasticity, and any sudden additional amount of blood engorges the 
tissues so that they can not contract and congestion results. Example : 
The lungs of a race horse, after an unusual burst of speed or severe 
work, in damp weather. 

(2) Irritants. — Heat, cold, chemical or mechanical. Any of these, 
by threatening the vitality of a tissue, induce immediately an aug- 
mented flow of blood to the part to furnish the means of repair — a hot 
iron, frostbites, acids, or a blow. 

(3) Nerve influence. — This may produce congestion either by acting 
on the part reflexly, or as the result of some central nerve disturbance 
affecting the branch which supplies a given organ. 

(4) Plethora and sanguinary temperament. — Full-blooded animals are 
much more predisposed to congestive diseases than those of a lymphatic 
character, or those in an anaemic condition. The circulation in them is 
forced to all parts with much greater force and in larger quantities. A 
well-bred, full-blooded horse is much more subject to congestive dis- 
eases than a common, coarse, or old worn-out animal. 

(5) Fevers. — In fever the heart works more actively and forces the 
current of blood more rapidly; the tissues are weakened, and it requires 
but a slight local cause at any part to congest the structures already 
overloaded with blood. Again, in certain fevers, we find alteration of 
the blood itself, rendering it less or more fluid, which interferes with its 
free passage through the vessels and induces a local predisposition to 
congestion. 



165 

(6) Warm climate and summer heat. — Warmth of the atmosphere re- 
laxes the tissues ; it demands of the animals less blood to keep up their 
own body temperature, and the extra quantity accumulates in the 
blood-vessel system. It causes sluggishness in the performance of the 
organic functions, and in this way it induces congestion, especially of 
the internal organs. So we find founders, congestive colics, and stag- 
gers more frequent in summer than in winter. 

(7) Previous congestion. — Whether the previous congestion of any 
organ has been a continuous normal one, that is, a repeated functional 
activity, or has been a morbid temporary overloading, it always leaves 
the walls of the vessels weakened and more predisposed to recurrent 
attacks from accidental causes than perfectly healthy tissues are. Thus 
a horse which has had a congestion of the lungs from a severe drive is 
apt to have another attack from even a lesser cause. 

The alterations of congestion are distention of the blood vessels, ac- 
cumulation of the cellular elements of the blood in them, and effusion 
of a portion of the liquid of the blood into the fibrous tissues which 
surround the vessels. Where the changes produced by congestion are 
visible, as in the eye, the nostril, the mouth, the genital organs, and on 
the surface of the body in white or unpigmented animals, the part ap- 
pears red from the increase of blood; it becomes swollen from the 
effusion of liquid into the sponge-like connective tissues ; it is at times 
more or less hot from the increased combustion ; the part is frequently 
painful to the animal from pressure of the effusion on the nerves, and 
the function of the tissue is interfered with. The secretion or excre- 
tion of glands may be augmented or diminished. Muscles may be 
affected with spasms or maybe unable to contract. The eye and ears 
may be affected with imaginary sights and sounds. 

PASSIVE CONGESTION. 

Passive congestion is caused by interference with the return of the 
current of blood from a part. 

Old age and debility weaken the tissues and the force of the circulation, 
especially in the veins, and retard the movement of the blood. We 
then see horses of this class with stocked legs, swelling of the sheath 
of the penis or of the milk glands, and of the under surface of the belly. 
We find them also with effusions of the liquid parts of the blood into 
the lymph spaces of the posterior extremities and organs of the pelvic 
cavity. 

Tumors or other mechanical obstruction, by pressing on the veins, retard 
the flow of blood and cause it to back up in distal parts of the body, 
causing passive congestion. 

The alterations of passive congestion, as in active congestion, consist 
of an increased quantity of blood in the vessels and an exudation of its 
fluid into the tissues surrounding them, but in passive congestion we 
have a dark thick blood which has lost its oxygen, instead of the rich 
combustible blood rich in oxygen which is found in active congestion. 
11035 30 



466 

Tlie termination of congestion is by resolution or inflammation. Tn the 
first case, the choked-up blood vessels find an outlet for the excessive 
amount of blood and are relieved 5 the transuded serum or fluid of the 
blood is reabsorbed, and the part returns almost to its normal condi- 
tion, with, however, a tendency to weakness predisposing to future 
trouble of the same kind. In the other case further alterations take 
place, and we have inflammation. 

INFLAMMATION. 

Inflammation is a hypernutrition of a tissue. It is described by Dr. 
Agnew, the surgeon, as " a double-edged sword, cutting either way for 
good or for evil." The increased nutrition may be moderate and cause 
a growth of new tissue, a simple increase of quantity at first; or it may 
produce a new growth differing in quality, as a cancer; or it may be so 
great that, like luxuriant, overgrown weeds, the elements die from their 
very haste of growth, and we have immediate destruction of the part. 
According to the rapidity and intensity of the process of structural 
changes which take place in an inflamed tissue, inflammation is de- 
scribed as acute or chronic, with a vast number of intermediate forms. 
When the phenomena are marked it is termed sthenic ; when less dis- 
tinct, as the result of a broken down and feeble constitution in the ani- 
mal, it is called asthenic. Certain inflammations are specific, as in 
strangles, the horsepox, glanders, etc., where a characteristic or spe- 
cific cause or condition is added to the origin, character of phenomena, 
or alterations which result from an ordinary inflammation. An inflam- 
mation may be circumscribed or limited, as in the abscess on the neck 
caused by the pressure of a collar, in pneumonias, in glanders, in the 
small tumors of a splint or a jack; or it may be diffuse, as in severe 
fistulas of the withers, in an extensive lung fever, in the legs in a case 
of grease, or in the spavins which affect horses with poorly nourished 
bones. The causes of inflammation are practically the same as those of 
congestion, which is the initial step of all inflammation. 

The temperament of a horse predisposes the animal to inflammation 
of certain organs. A full-blooded animal, whose veins show on the 
surface of the body, and which has a strong, bounding heart pumping 
large quantities of blood into the vascular organs like the lungs, the 
intestines, and the laminae of the feet, is more apt to have pneumonia, 
congestive colics, and founder, while lymphatic, cold-blooded animals 
have pleurisies, inflammation of the bones, spavins, ring bones, etc., 
inflammation of the glands of the less vascular skin of the extremities, 
greasy heels, thrush, etc. 

Young horses have inflammation of the membranes lining the air 
passages and digestive tract, while older animals are more subject to 
troubles in the closed serous sacks and in the bones. 

The work to which a horse is put (saddle or harness, speed or draft) 



467 

■will influence the predisposition of an animal to inflammatory diseases. 
Like in congestion, the functional activity of a part is an important 
factor in localizing this form of disease. Given a group of horses ex- 
posed to the same draft of cold air or other exciting cause of inflamma- 
tion, the one which has just been eating will be attacked with an in- 
flammation of the bowels; the one that has just been working so as to 
increase its respiration will have an inflammation of the throat, bronchi, 
or lungs ; the one that has just been using its feet excessively will have 
a founder or inflammation of the laminae of the feet. 

The direct cause of inflammation is usually an irritant of some form. 
This may be mechanical or chemical, external or internal. Cuts, bruises, 
injuries of any kind, parasites, acids, blisters, heat, cold, secretions, as 
an excess of tears over the cheek or urine on the legs, all cause inflam- 
mation by direct injury to the part. Strains or wrenches of joints, liga- 
ments, and tendons cause trouble by laceration of the tissue. 

Inflammations of the internal organs are caused by irritants as above, 
and by sudden cooling of the surface of the animal, which drives the 
blood to that organ which at the moment is most actively supplied with 
blood. This is called repercussion. A horse which has been worked at 
speed and is breathing rapidly if suddenly chilled is liable to have 
pneumonia, while an animal which has just been fed if exposed to the 
same influence is more apt to have a congestive colic, the blood in 
this case being driven from the exterior to the intestines, while in the 
former it was driven to the lungs. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms of inflammation are, as in congestion, 
change of color, due to an increased supply of blood ; swelling, from the 
same cause, with the addition of an effusion into the surrounding tis- 
sues ; heat, owing to the increased combustion in the part; pain, due to 
pressure on the nerves and altered function. This latter may be aug- 
mented or diminished, or first one and then the other. In addition to 
the local symptoms, inflammation always produces more or less con- 
stitutional disturbance or fever. A. splint or small spavin will cause so 
little fever that it is not appreciable, while a severe spavin, an inflamed 
joint, or a pneumonia may give rise to a marked fever. 

The alterations in an inflamed tissue are first those of congestion, dis- 
tension of the blood vessels, and exudation of the fluid of the blood into 
the surrounding fibers, with, however, a more complete stagnation of 
the blood; fibrine or lymph, a glue-like substance, is thrown out as 
well, and the cells, which we have seen to be living organisms in them- 
selves, no longer carried in the current of the blood, migrate from the 
vessels and finding proper nutriment proliferate or multiply with greater 
or less rapidity. The cells which lie dormant in the meshes of the sur- 
rounding fibers are awakened into activity by the nutritious lymph 
which surrounds them and they also multiply. 

Whether the cell in an inflamed part is the white amoeboid cell of the 
blood or the fixed connective tissue cell embedded in the fibers, it multj- 



468 

plies in the same way. The germ in the center (nucleus) is divided into 
two, and then each again into two ad infinitum. If the process is slow, 
each new cell may assimilate nourishment and become, like its ancestor, 
an aid in the formation of new tissues ; if, however, the changing takes 
place rapidly the brood of young cells have not time to grow or use up 
the surrounding nourishment, and but half-developed they die, and we 
then have destruction of tissue, and pus or matter is formed, a material 
made up of the imperfect dead elements and the broken down tissue. 
Between the two there is an intermediate form, where we have imper- 
fectly formed tissues, as in "proud flesh," cancer, large and soft splints, 
fungus growths, greasy heels, and thrush. 

Whether the inflamed tissue is one like the skin, lungs, or intestines, 
very loose in their texture, or a tendon or bone, dense in structure, and 
comparatively poor in blood-vessels, the principle of the process is the 
same. The effects, however, and the appearance may be widely differ- 
ent. After a cut on the face or an exudation into the lungs, the loose 
tissues and multiple vessels allow the proliferating cells to obtain rich 
nourishment ; absorption can take place readily, and the part regains 
its normal condition entirely, while a bruise at the heel or at the withers 
finds a dense, inextensible tissue where the multiplying elements and 
exuded fluids choke up all communication, and the parts die (ulcerate) 
from want of blood and cause a serious quittor or fistula. 

This effect of structure of a part on the same process shows the im- 
portance of a perfect knowledge in the study of a local trouble, and 
the indispensable part which such knowledge plays in judging of the 
gravity of an inflammatory disease, and in formulating a prognosis or 
opinion of the final termination of it. It is this which allows the vet- 
erinarian, through his knowledge of the intimate structure of a part 
and the relations of its elements, to judge of the severity of a disease, 
and to prescribe different modes of treatment in two animals for trou- 
bles which appear to the less experienced observer to be absolutely 
identical. 

Termination of inflammation. — Like congestion, inflammation may ter- 
minate by resolution. In this case the exuded lymph undergoes chemi- 
cal alteration by oxidization, and the products are absorbed and car- 
ried off by the blood vessels and lymphatics, to be thrown out of the 
body by the liver, the glands of the skin, and the other excretory organs. 
The cells, which have wandered into the neighboring tissues from the 
blood vessels, find their way back again or become transformed into 
fixed cells. Those which are the result of the tissue cells, wakened into 
active life, follow the same course. The vessels themselves contract, 
and having resumed their normal caliber, the part apparently reassumes 
its normal condition ; but it is always weakened, and a new inflamma- 
tion is more liable to reappear in a previously inflamed part than in a 
sound one. The alternate termination is mortification. If the mortifi- 
cation, or death of a part, is by molecules, each losing its vitality after 



469 

the other in more or less rapid succession, it takes the name of ulcera- 
tion. If it occurs in a considerable part at once, it is called gangrene. 
If this death of the tissues occurs deep in the organism, and the de- 
stroyed elements and proliferated and dead cells are enclosed in a 
cavity, the result of the process is called an abscess. When it occurs on 
a surface, it is an ulcer, and an abscess by breaking on the exterior 
becomes then also an ulcer. Proliferating and dying cells, and the 
fluid which exudes from an ulcerating surface, and the d6bris of broken 
down tissue, is known as pus, and the process by which this is formed 
is known as suppuration. A mass of dead tissue in a soft part is termed 
a slough, while the same in bone is called a sequestrum. 

Treatment of inflammation. — The study of the cause and pathological 
alterations of inflammation has shown the process to be one of hyper- 
nutrition, attended by excessive blood supply, so this study will indi- 
cate the primary factor to be employed in the treatment of it. Any 
agent which will reduce the blood supply and prevent the excessive 
nutrition of the elements of the part will serve as a remedy. The 
means employed may be used locally to the part, or they maybe consti- 
tutional remedies, which act indirectly. 

Local treatment consists of: 

(a) Removal of the cause, as a stone in the frog, causing a traumatic 
thrush 5 a badly fitting harness or saddle, causing ulcers of the skin ; 
decomposing manure and urine in a stable, which, by their vapors, irri- 
tate the air tubes and lungs and cause a cough. These causes, if re- 
moved, will frequently allow the part to heal at once. 

(b) Rest. — Motion stimulates the action of the blood, and thus feeds 
an inflamed tissue. This is alike applicable to a diseased point irritated 
by movement, to an inflamed pair of lungs surcharged with blood by 
the use demanded of them in a working animal, or to an inflamed eye 
exposed to light, or an inflamed stomach and intestines still further 
fatigued by food. Absolute quiet, a dark stable, and small quantities 
of easily digested food will often cure serious inflammatory troubles 
without further treatment. 

(c) Cold. — The application of ice bags or cold water by bandages, 
douching with a hose, or irrigation with dripping water, contracts the 
blood-vessels, acts as a sedative to the nerves and lessens the vitality 
of a part ; it consequently prevents the tissue change which inflamma- 
tion produces. 

(d) Seat — Either dry or moist heat acts as a derivative. It quick- 
ens the circulation and renders the chemical changes more active in the 
surrounding parts; it softens the tissues and attracts the current of 
blood from the inflamed organ ; it also promotes the absorption of the 
effusion and hastens the elimination of the waste products in the part. 
Heat may be applied by hand rubbing or active friction and the ap- 
plication of warm coverings (bandages), or by cloths wrung out of 
warm water, or steaming with warm moist vapor, medicated or not, will 



470 

answer the same purpose. The latter is especially applicable to in- 
flammatory troubles in the air passages. 

(e) Local bleeding. — This treatment frequently affords immediate re- 
lief by carrying off the excessive blood and draining the effusion which 
has already occurred. It affords direct mechanical relief, and, by a 
stimulation of the part, promotes the chemical changes necessary for 
bringing the diseased tissues to a healthy condition. Local blood-let- 
ting can be done by scarifying, or making small punctures into the 
inflamed part, as in the eyelid of an inflamed eye, or into the sheath of 
the penis, or into the skin of the latter organ when congested, or the 
leg when acutely swelled. This treatment, however, is frequently very 
advantageous in the toe of the foot in acute founder ; leeches, cups, 
etc., are rarely applicable in veterinary practice. 

Counter irritants are used for deep inflammations. They act by 
bringing the blood to the surface and consequently lessening the blood 
pressure within. The derivation of the blood to the exterior diminishes 
the amount in the internal organs and is often almost miraculous in its 
action in relieving a congested lung or liver. The most common coun- 
ter irritant is mustard flour. It is applied as a soft paste mixed with 
warm water to the under surface of the belly and to the sides where 
the skin is comparatively soft and vascular. Colds in the throat or 
inflammations at any point demand the treatment applied in the same 
manner to the belly and sides and not to the throat or on the legs, as 
so often used. Blisters, iodine, and many other irritants are used in 
the same way. 

Constitutional treatment in inflammation is designed to reduce the 
current of blood, which is the fuel for the inflammation in the diseased 
part, to quiet the patient and to combat the fever or general effects of 
the trouble in the system. It consists of: 

Reduction of blood.— This is obtained in various ways. The diminu- 
tion of the quantity of blood lessens the amount of pressure on the 
vessels, and, as a sequel, the volume of it which is carried to the point 
of inflammation ; it diminishes the body temperature or fever ; it numbs 
the nervous system, which plays an important part as a conductor of 
irritation in diseases. 

Blood-letting is the most rapid means, and frequently acts like a charm 
in relieving a commencing inflammatory trouble. The class of horses 
and cattle in which this mode of treatment is indicated usually tolerates 
the loss of a considerable quantity of blood without inconvenience and 
recuperates from the loss rapidly. 

Cathartics act by drawing off a large quantity of fluid from the blood 
through the intestines, and have the advantage over the last remedy 
of removing only the watery and not the formed elements from the cir- 
culation. The blood cells remain, leaving the blood as rich as it was 
before. Again, the glands of the intestines are stimulated to excrete 
much waste matter and other deleterious material which may be acting 
as a poison in the blood. 



471 

Diuretics operate through the kidneys in the same way. 

Diaphoretics aid depletion of the blood by pouring water in the form 
of sweat from the surface of the skin and stimulating the discharge of 
waste material out of its glands, which has the same effect on the blood 
pressure. 

Depressants are drugs which act on the heart. They slow or weaken 
the action of this organ and reduce the quantity and force of the cur- 
rent of the blood which is carried to the point of local disease ; they 
lessen the vitality of the animal ; so they act in two ways : first, as in the 
previous classes, by reduction of the force of the blood ; and, secondly, 
as in the next class, by putting to rest the animal system. 

Anodynes quiet the nervous system. Pain in the horse, as in man, is 
one of the important factors in the production of fever, and the dulling 
of the former often prevents, or at least reduces, the latter. They pro- 
duce sleep, so as to rest the patient and allow recuperation for the suc- 
ceeding struggle of the vitality of the animal against the exhausting 
drain of the disease. 

The diet of an animal suffering from acute inflammation is a factor of 
the greatest importance. An overloaded circulation can be starved to a 
reduced quantity and to a less rich quality of blood, by reducing the 
quantity of food given to the patient. Matters of easy digestion do not 
tire the already fatigued organs of an animal with a torpid digestive 
system. Nourishment will be taken by a suffering brute in the form of 
slops and cooling drinks where it would be totally refused if offered iu 
its ordinary form, as hard oats or dry hay, requiring the labor of grind- 
ing between the teeth and swallowing by the weakened muscles of the 
jaws and throat. 

Tonics and stimulants are remedies which enter rather into the after 
treatment of inflammatory trouble than into the acute stages of them. 
They brace up weakened and torpid glands ; they stimulate the secre- 
tion of the necessary fluids of the body, and hasten the excretion of the 
waste material produced by the inflammatory process ; they regulate 
the action of a weakened heart; they promote healty vitality of dis- 
eased parts, aud aid the chemical changes needed for returning the 
altered tissues to their normal condition. 

FEVER. 

Synonyms: Febris, Latin ; Pyrexia, G-reek ; Fievre, French; Fieber, 
German; Febbre, Italian: Galentura, Spanish. 

The etymology of the word fever from the Latin fevere, to boil or to 
burn, and of pyrexia, from the Greek word nuf>, fire, defines in a general 
way the meaning of the term. 

Fever is a general condition of the animal body in which there is an 
elevation of the animal body temperature, which may be only a degree 
or two or may be 10° Fahrenheit. The elevation of the body tem- 
perature, which represents tissue change or combustion, is accoin- 



472 

panied by an acceleration of the heart's action, a quickening of the 
respiration, and au aberration in the functional activity of the various 
organs of the body. These organs may be stimulated to the perform- 
ance of excessive work, or they may be incapacitated from carrying 
out their allotted tasks, or in the course of a fever the two conditions 
may both exist, the one succeeding the other. To fever as a disease is 
usually added chills as an essential symptom. 

Fevers are divided into essential fevers and symptomatic fevers. In 
symptomatic fever some local disease, usually of au inflammatory char- 
acter, develops first, and the constitutional febrile pheuomena are the 
result of the primary point of combustion, irritating the whole body, 
either through the nervous system or directly by means of the waste 
material which is carried into the circulation and through the blood 
vessels, and is distributed to distal parts. Essential fevers are those in 
which there is from the outset a general disturbance of the whole econ- 
omy. This may consist of an elementary alteration in the blood, or a 
general change in the constitution of the tissues. 

Essential fevers are subdivided into ephemeral fevers, which last but 
a short time and terminate by critical phenomena ; intermittent fevers, 
in which there are alternations of exacerbations of the febrile symp- 
toms and remissions, in which the body returns to its normal condition 
or sometimes to a depressed condition, in which the functions of life 
are but badly performed ; and continued fevers, which include the conta- 
gious diseases, as glanders, influenza, etc., the septic diseases, as pyaemia, 
septicaemia, etc., and the eruptive fevers, as variola, etc. 

Whether the cause of the fever has been an injury to the tissues, as a 
severe bruise, a broken bone, an inflamed lung, or excessive work 
which has surcharged the blood with the waste products of the com- 
bustion of the tissues, which were destroyed to produce force; or the 
pullulation of the ferments of influenza in the blood which destroy the 
red blood corpuscles; or the presence of irritating material, either in 
the form of living organisms or of their products, as in glanders or 
tuberculosis, the general train of symptoms are the same, only varying 
as the amount of the irritant differs in quantity, or when some special 
quality in them has a specific action on one or another tissue. 

There is iu fever at first a relaxation of the small blood vessels, 
which may have been preceded by a contraction of the same if there 
was a chill, and as a consequence there is an acceleration of the cur- 
rent of the blood. There is then an elevation of the peripheral tem- 
perature, followed by a lowering of tension in the arteries and an ac- 
celeration iu the movement of the heart. These conditions may be 
produced by a primary irritation of the nerve centers, or the brain 
from the effects of heat, as is seen in thermic fever or sunstroke, in 
which trouble the extremes of symptoms may sometimes be seen alter- 
nating with a very short period, to be counted scarcely by hoars. 

There are times when it is difficult to distinguish betweeu the exist- 



473 

ence of fever as a disease and a temporary feverish condition which is 
the result of excessive work. Like the condition of congestion of the 
lungs, which is normal up to a certain degree in the lungs of a race horse 
after a severe race, aud morbid when it produces more than temporary 
phenomena or when it causes distinct lesions, fever, or as it is better 
termed a feverish condition, may follow any work or other employment 
of energy in which excessive tissue change has taken place, but if the 
consequences are ephemeral, and no recognizable lesion is apparent, it 
is not considered morbid. This condition, however, may predispose to 
severe organic disturbance and local inflammations which will cause 
disease, as an animal in this condition is liable to take cold, develop a 
lung fever or a severe enteritis, if chilled or otherwise exposed. 

Fever in all animals is characterized by the same general phenomena, 
but we find the intensity of the symptoms modified by the species of 
animals affected, by the races which subdivide the species, by the fam- 
ilies which form groups of the races, and by certain conditions in indi- 
viduals themselves. For example, a pricked foot in a thoroughbred 
may cause intense fever, while the same injury in the foot of a Clydes- 
dale may scarcely cause a visible general symptom. In the horse, fever 
produces the following symptoms: 

The normal body temperature, which varies from 98° to 100° F., the 
latter being usually the result of some temporary cause, is elevated 
from 1 to 9 degrees. A temperature of 102° or 103° F. is moderate, 
104° to 105° F. is high, and 106° F. and over is excessive. 

This elevation of temperature can readily be felt by the hand placed 
in the mouth of the animal, or in the rectum, and in the folds between 
the hind legs ; it is usually appreciable at auy point over the surface of 
the body and in the expired air emitted from the nostrils. The ears 
and cannons are often as hot as the rest of the body, but are sometimes 
cold, which denotes a debility in the circulation. The pulse, which in 
a healthy horse is felt beating about 42 to 48 times in the minute, is 
increased to 60, 70, 90 or even 100. The respirations are increased from 
14 or 16 to 24, 30, 36, or even more. With the commencement of a fever 
the horse usually has its appetite diminished, or it may have total loss 
of appetite, if the fever is excessive. There is, however, a vast differ- 
ence among horses in this regard. With the same amount of elevation 
of temperature one horse may lose its appetite entirely, while others, 
usually of the more common sort, will eat at hay throughout the course 
of the fever and will even continue to eat oats or other grains. Thirst 
is usually increased, but the animal desires only a small quantity of 
water at a time, and in most cases of fever a bucket of water with the 
chill taken off should be kept standing before the patient, who may be 
allowed it ad libitum. The skin becomes dry and the hairs stand on 
end. Sweating is almost unknown in the early stage of fevers, but 
frequently occurs later in their course, when an outbreak of warm sweat 
is often a most favorable symptom. The mucous membranes, which are 



474 

most easily examined in the conjunctiva of the eyes and inside of the 
mouth, change color if the fever is an acute one 5 without alteration of 
blood the mucous membranes become of a rosy or deep red color at the 
outset ; if the fever is attended with distinct alteration of the blood, as 
in influenza, and at the end of two or three days in severe cases of 
pneumonia or other extensive inflammatory troubles, the mucous mem- 
branes are tinged with yellow, which may even become a deep ochre in 
color, the result of the decomposition of the blood corpuscles and the 
freeing of their coloring matter, which acts as a stain. At the outset of 
a fever the various glands are checked in their secretions, the salivary 
glands fail to secrete the saliva, and we find the surface of the tongue 
and inside of the cheeks dry and covered with a brownish, bad-smelling 
deposit. The excretion from the liver and intestinal glands is dimin- 
ished aud produces an inactivity of the digestive organs which causes 
a constipation. If this is not remedied at an early period the undigested 
material acts as an irritant, and later we may have it followed by an 
inflammatory process, producing a severe diarrhea. 

The excretion from the kidneys is sometimes at first entirely sup- 
pressed. It is always considerably diminished, and what urine is passed 
is dark in color, undergoes ammoniacal change rapidly, and deposits 
quantities of salts. At a later period the diminished excretion may 
be replaced by an excessive excretion, which aids in carrying off waste 
products and usually indicates an amelioration of the fever. 

While the ears, cannons, and hoofs of a horse suffering from fever are 
usually found hot, they may frequently alternate from hot to cold in 
their temperature, or be much cooler than they normally are. This lat- 
ter condition usually indicates great weakness on the part of the circu- 
latory system. It is of the greatest importance as an aid in diagnosing 
the gravity of an attack of fever and as an indication in the selection of 
its mode of treatment, to recognize the exact cause of a febrile condi- 
tion in the horse. In certain cases, in very nervous animals in which 
fever is the result of nerve influence, a simple anodyne, or even only 
quiet with continued care and nursing, will sometimes be sufficient to 
diminish it. When fever is the result of local injury the cure of the 
cause produces a cessation in the constitutional symptoms ; when fever 
is the result of a pneumonia or other severe parenchymatous inflamma- 
tion, it usually lasts for a definite time, and subsides with the first im- 
provement of the local trouble, but in these cases we constantly have 
exaccerbations of fever due to secondary inflammatory processes, such as 
the formation of small abscesses, the development of secondary bron- 
chitis, or the death of a limited amount of tissue (gangrene). 

In specific cases, such as influenza, strangles, and septicaemia, there 
is a definite poison contained in the blood-vessel system, and carried to 
the heart and to the nervous system, which produces a peculiar irrita- 
tion, usually lasting for a specific period, during which the temperature 
cau be but slightly diminished by any remedy. 



475 

In cases attended with complications, the diagnosis becomes at times 
still more difficult, as at the end of a case of influenza which becomes 
complicated with pneumonia. The high temperature of the simple in- 
flammatory disease may be grafted on that of the specific trouble, and 
the line of causation of the fever between the two, frequently a narrow 
is yet an important one, as upon it depends the mode of treatment. 

Any animal suffering from fever, from any cause, is much more sus- 
ceptible to attacks of local inflammation, which become complications of 
the original disease, than are animals in sound health. In fever we 
have the tissues and the walls of the blood vessels weakened, we have 
an increased current of more or less altered blood, flowing through the 
vessels and stagnating in the capillaries, which need but an exciting 
cause to transform the passive congestion of fever into an active con- 
gestion and acute inflammation. These conditions become still more 
distinct when the fever is accompanied by a decided deterioration in 
the flood itself, as is seen in influenza, septicaemia, and at the termina- 
tion of severe pneumonias. 

Fever, with its symptoms of increased temperature, acceleration of the 
pulse, acceleration of respiration, dry shin, diminished secretions, etc., must 
be considered as a symptom of organic disturbance. 

This organic disturbance may be the result of local inflammation or 
other irritants acting through the nerves on nerve centers ; alteratio7is 
of the Mood, in which a poison is carried to the nerve centers, or direct 
irritants to the nerve centers themselves, as in cases of heat stroke, 
injury to the brain, etc. 

The treatment of fever depends upon its cause. As nerve irritation 
enters into the etiology of fever in all cases, one of the important factors 
in treatment is absolute quiet. This may be obtained by placing a sick 
horse in a box stall, away from other animals and extraneous noises, 
and sheltered from excessive light and draughts of air. Anodynes, 
belladonna, hyoscyamus, and opium, act as antipyretics simply by quiet- 
ing the nervous system. As an irritant exists in the blood in most cases 
of fever, any remedy which will favor the excretion of foreign elements 
from it will diminisji this cause. We therefore employ diaphoretics to 
stimulate the sweat and excretions from the skin; diuretics to favor 
the elimination of matter by the kidneys ; cholagogues and laxatives 
to increase the action of the liver and intestines, and to drain from these 
important organs all the waste material which is aiding to choke up 
and congest their rich plexuses of blood vessels. As the heart becomes 
stimulated to increased action at the outset of a fever, and increases it 
by pumping an augmented quantity of blood through the whole body, 
we employ cardiac depressants to diminish the force of this organ. 
Among these antimony, aconite, veratrum viride, and iodide of potash 
are the most important. The increased blood pressure throughout the 
body may also be dimiuished by lessening the quantity of blood. This 
is obtained in many cases with advantage by direct abstraction of blood, 



476 

as in bleeding from the jugular or other veins, or by derivatives, snch 
as mustard, turpentine, or blisters applied to the skin; or setons, which 
draw to the surface the fluid of the blood, thereby lessening its volume, 
without having the disadvantage found in bleeding, of impoverishing 
the elements of the blood. 

When the irritation which is the cause of fever is a specific one, either 
in the form of a bacteria (living organism), as in glanders, tuberculosis, 
influenza, septicaemia, etc., or in the form of a foreign chemical element, 
as in rheumatism, gout, haeinaglobinuria, and other so-called diseases 
of nutrition, we employ remedies which have been found to have a di- 
rect specific action on them. Among the specific remedies for various 
diseases are counted quinine, carbolic acid, salicylic acid, antipyrine, 
mercury, iodine, the empyreumatic oils, tars, resins, aromatics, sulphur, 
and a host of other drugs, some of which are ad hoc and others of which 
are theoretical in action. Certain remedies, like simple aromatic teas, 
vegetable acids, as vinegar, lemon juice, etc., alkaliues in the form of 
salts, sweet spirits of niter, etc., which are household remedies, are al- 
ways useful, because they act on the excreting organs and ameliorate 
the effects of fever. Other remedies, which are to be used to influence 
the cause of fever, must be selected with judgment and from a thorough 
knowledge of the nature of the disease. 

INFLUENZA. 

Synonyms: PinJc-Fye, Typhoid Fever, Epizobty, Fpihippic Fever, Fievre 
Typhoide, French ; Grippe, French ; Pferdestaube, German ; Gastroenter- 
itis of Vatel and d'Arboval; Febris Frysipelatodes, Zundel; Typhus of 
Delafond; Hepatic Fever, Bilious Fever, etc. 

Definition. — Influenza is a contagious and infectious specific fever of 
the horse, ass, and mule, with alterations of the blood, stupefaction of 
the brain and nervous system, great depression of the vital forces and 
frequent inflammatory complications of the important vascular organs, 
especially of the lungs, intestines, brain, and laminae of the feet. One 
attack usually protects the animal from future ones of the same disease, 
but not always. An apparent complete recoveryis sometimes followed 
by serious sequelae of the nervous and blood-vessel systems. The dis- 
ease is very apt, under certain conditions of the atmosphere or from 
unknown causes, to assume an epizootic form, with tendency to compli- 
cations of especial organs, as, at one period the lungs, at another the 
intestines, etc. 

The first description of influenza is given by Laurentius Eusius, in 
1301, A. D., when it spread over a considerable portion of Italy, caus- 
ing great loss amongst the war-horses of Rome and its surroundings. 
In 1648, A. D., an epizootic of this disease visited Germany and spread 
to other ports of Europe. In 1711, A. D., under the name of " epidemica 
equorum," it followed the tracks of the great armies all over Europe, 
causing immense losses among the horses, while the " rinderpest" was 



477 

scourging the cattle of the same regions. The two diseases were con- 
founded with each other, and were, by the scientists of the day, allied to 
the typhus, which was a plague to the human race at the same time. We 
find the first advent of this disease to the British Islands in an epi- 
zootic among the horses of London and the southern counties of Eng- 
land, in 1732, which is described by Gibson. In 1758, Robert Whytt 
recounts the devastation of the horses of the north of Scotland from the 
same trouble. Throughout the eighteenth century a number of epizootics 
occurred in Hanover and other portions of Germany and in France, 
which were renewed early in the present century, with complications 
of the intestinal tract, which obtained for it its name of gastro-enteritis. 
In 1766 it first attacked the horses in North America, but is not de- 
scribed as again occurring in a severe form until 1870-1872, when it 
spread over the entire country, from Canada south to Ohio, and then 
eastward to the Atlantic and westward to California. It is now a per- 
manent disease in our large cities, selecting for the continuance of its 
virulence young or especially susceptible horses which pass through 
the large and ill- ventilated and uncleaned dealers 7 stables and assumes, 
from time to time, an enzootic form, as from some reason its virulence 
increases, or as from reasons of rural economy and commerce large num- 
bers of young and more susceptible animals are exposed to its conta- 
gion. 

Etiology. — As one attack is self-protective, numbers of old horses, 
having had an earlier attack, are not capable of contracting it again ; 
but, aside from this, young horses, especially those about four or five 
years of age, are much more predisposed to be attacked, while the older 
ones, even if they have not had the disease, are less liable to it. Again, 
the former age is that in which the horse is brought from the farm, 
where it has been free from the risk of contamination, and is sold to 
pass through the stables of the country taverns, the dirty, infected 
railway cars, and the foul stockyards and damp dealers' stables of our 
large cities. Want of training is a predisposing cause. Overfed, fat, 
young horses, which have just come through the sales stables, are much 
more susceptible to contagion than the same horses are after a few 
months of steady work. 

Pilger, in 1805, was the first to recognize infection as the direct cause 
of the disease. Roll and others studied the contagiousness of influenza, 
and finding it so much more virulent and permanent in old stables than 
elsewhere classed it as a " stall miasm." The atmosphere is the most 
common carrier of the infection from sick animals to healthy ones, and 
through it it may be carried for a considerable distance. The contagion 
will remain in the straw bedding and droppings of the animal, and in 
the feed in an infected stable, for a considerable time, and if these are 
removed to other localities it may be carried in them. It may be car- 
ried in the clothing of those who have been in attendance on horses 
suffering: from the disease. The drinking water in troughs and even 



478 

running water may hold the virus and be a means of its communication 
to other animals even at a distance. The studies of Dieckerhoff, in 
1881, in regard to the contagion of influenza were especially interest- 
ing. He found that during a local enzootic, produced by the introduc- 
tion of horses suffering from influenza into an extensive stable other- 
wise perfectly healthy, that the infection took place in what at first 
seemed to be a most irregular manner, but which was shown later to be 
dependent on the ventilation and currents of air through the various 
buildings. His experiments showed that the virus of influenza is ex- 
cessively diffusible, and that it will spread rapidly to the roof of a build- 
ing and pass by the apertures of ventilation to others in the neighbor- 
hood. The writer has seen cases spread through a brick wall and attack 
animals on the opposite side before others even in the same stable were 
affected. Brick walls, old woodwork, and the dirt which is too fre- 
quently left about the feed boxes of a horse stall, will all hold the con. 
tagion for some days, if not weeks, and communicate it to susceptible 
animals when placed in the same locality. A four-year old colt, belong- 
ing to the writer, stood at the open door of a stable where two cases of 
influenza had developed the day before, fully 40 feet from the stall, for 
about ten minutes on two successive mornings, and in six days devel- 
oped the disease. On the morning when the trouble in the colt was 
recognized it stood in an infirmary with a dozen horses being treated 
for various diseases, but was immediately isolated ; within one week 
two-thirds of the other horses had contracted the pink-eye. 

Symptoms. — After the exposure of a susceptible horse to infection a 
period of incubation of from five to seven days elapses, during which the 
animal seems in perfect health, before any symptom is visible. When 
the symptoms of influenza develop they may be intense or they may be 
so moderate as to occasion but little alarm, but the latter condition 
frequently exposes the animal to use and to the danger of the exciting 
causes of complications which would not have happened had the animal 
been left quietly in its stall in place of being worked or driven out to 
show to prospective purchasers. The disease may run its simple course 
as a specific fever, with alterations only of the blood, or it may become 
at any period complicated by local inflammatory troubles, the gravity 
of which is augmented by developing in an animal with an impoverished 
blood and already irritated and rapid circulation and defective nutritive 
and reparative functious. 

The first symptoms are those of a rapidly developing fever, which 
becomes intense within a very short period. The animal becomes de- 
jected and inattentive to surrounding objects; stands with its head 
down, and not back on the halter as in serious lung diseases. It has 
chills of the flanks, the muscles of the croup, and the muscles of the 
shoulders, or of the entire body, lasting from fifteen to thirty minutes, 
and frequently a grinding of the teeth which warns one that a severe 
attack may be expected. The hairs become dry and rough and stand 



47-9 

on end. The body temperature increases to 104°, 104£°, and 105° F., or 
even in severe cases to 107° F., within the first twelve or eighteen hours. 
The horse becomes stupid, stands immobile with its head hanging, the 
ears listless, and it pays but little attention to the surrounding attend- 
ants or the crack of a whip. The stupor becomes rapidly more marked, 
the eyes become puffy and swollen with excessive lacrymation, so that 
the tears run from the internal canthus of the eye over the cheeks and 
may blister the skin in its course. The respiration becomes accelerated 
to twenty-five or thirty in a minute, and the pulse is quickened to 
seventy, eighty, or even one hundred, moderate in volume and in force. 
There is great depression of muscular force ; the animal stands limp as 
if excessively fatigued. There is diminution, or in some cases total loss, 
of sensibility of the skin, so that it may be pricked or handled without 
attracting the attention of the animal. On movement, the horse stag- 
gers and shows a want of coordination of all of the muscles of its limbs. 
The senses of hearing, sight, and taste are diminished, if not entirely 
abolished. The visible mucous membranes (as the conjunctiva), from 
which it is known as the " pink-eye," and the mouth and the natural 
openings become of a deep saffron, ocher, or violet-red color. This latter 
is especially noticeable on the rim of the gums and is a condition not 
found in any other disease, so that it is an almost diagnostic symptom. 
If the animal is bled at this period the blood is found more coagulable 
than normal, but at a later period it becomes of a dark color and less 
coagulable. There is great diminution or total loss of appetite with an 
excessive thirst, but in many cases in cold- blooded horses the animal 
may retain a certain amount of appetite, eating slowly at its hay, oats, 
or other feed. 

We have, following the fever, a tumefaction or oedema of the subcu- 
taneous tissues at the fetlocks, of the under surface of the belly, and of 
the sheath of the penis, which may be excessive. This infiltration is 
non-inflammatory in character and produces an insensibility of the skin 
like the excessive stocking which we see in debilitated animals after ex- 
posure to cold. In ordinary cases the temperature has reached its 
maximum of 105° or 106° F. in from twenty-four to forty-eight hours 
from the origin of the fever. It remains stationary for a period of from 
three to four days withont the variation between morning and evening 
temperature which we have in pneumonia or other serious diseases of 
the lungs. At the termination of the specific course of the disease, 
which is generally close to eighty-six hours, the fever abates almost as 
rapidly as it commenced, the swelling of legs and under surface of belly 
diminishes, the appetite returns, the strength is rapidly regained, the 
mucous membranes lose their yellowish color, which they attain so rap- 
idly at the commencement of the disease, and the animal convalesces 
promptly to its ordinary good condition and health, and rapidly re- 
gains the large amount of weight which it lost in the early part of the 
disease, a loss which frequently reaches 30, 50, or even 75 pounds each 



480 

twenty-four hours. For the first three days of the high temperature 
there is a great tendency to constipation, which should be avoided if 
possible, for, if it has been marked, it may be followed by a trouble- 
some diarrhea. 

Terminations. — The termination of simple influenza may be death by 
extreme fever, with failure of the heart's action; from excessive coma, 
due generally to a rapid congestion of the brain ; to the poisonous 
effects of the debris of the disintegrated blood corpuscles ; to an as- 
phyxia, following congestion of the lungs; or the disease terminates by 
subsidence of the fever, return of the appetite and nutritive functions 
of the organs, and rapid convalescence; or, in an unfortunately large 
number of cases, the course of the disease is complicated by local in- 
flammatory troubles, whose gravity is greater in influenza than it is 
when they occur as sporadic diseases. 

Complications. — The complications are congestions, followed by in- 
flammatory phenomena in the various organs of the body, but they are 
most commonly located in the lungs', intestines, brain, or vascular lam- 
inae of the feet. Atmospheric influence or other surrounding influences 
of unknown quality seem to be an important factor in the determina- 
tion of the local lesions. At certain seasons of the year, and in certain 
epizootics, we find 40 and 50 per cent, or even a greater percentage of 
the cases rendered more serious by complication of the intestines ; at 
other seasons of the year, or in other epizootics, we find the same per 
cent, of cases complicated by inflammation of the lungs, while at the 
same time a small percentage of them are complicated by troubles of 
the other organs ; inflammatory changes of the brain, of the laminre, 
more rarely commence in epizootic form, but are to be found in a cer- 
tain small percentage of cases in all epizootics. 

Exciting causes are important factors in complicating individual cases 
of influenza, or in localizing special lesions either during enzootics or 
epizootics. These exciting or determining causes act much as they 
would in sporadic inflammatory diseases, but in this case we find the 
animal much more susceptible and predisposed to be acted upon than 
ordinary healthy animals. With a temperature already elevated, with 
the heart's action driving the blood in increased quantity into the dis- 
tended blood-vessels, which become dilated and lose their contractility, 
with a congestion of all of the vascular organs already established, it 
takes but little additional irritation to carry the congestion one step 
further and produce inflammation. 

Complication of the intestines. — When any cause acts as an irritant to 
the intestinal tract during the course of this specific fever it may pro- 
duce inflammation of the organs belonging to it. This cause may be 
constipation, which can only find relief in a congestion which offers to 
increase the function of the glands and relieve the inertia caused by a 
temporary cessation of activity ; or irritant medicines, especially any 
increased use of antimony, turpentine, or the more active remedies } the 



,481 

taking of indigestible food, or of food in too great quantities, or food 
altered in any way by fungus or other injurious alterations; the swal- 
lowing of too cold water; or any other irritant may cause congestion. 
This complication is ushered in by colics. The animal paws with the 
forefeet and evinces a great sensibility of the belly ; it looks with the 
head from side to side, and may lie down and get up, not with violence, 
but with care for itself, perfectly protecting the surface of the belly 
from any violence. At first we find a decided constipation ; the drop- 
pings if passed are small and hard, coated with a viscous varnish or 
even consisting of false membranes. In from 36 to 40 hours the con- 
stipation is followed by diarrhea. The alimentary discharge becomes 
mixed with a sero-mucous exudation, which is followed by a certain 
amount of suppurative matter. The animal becomes rapidly exhausted 
and unstable, staggers on movement, losing the little appetite which 
may have remained, and has exacerbations of fever. The pulse becomes 
softer and weaker, the respiration becomes slowly more rapid, the tem- 
perature is about 1° to 1£° F., higher. If a fatal result is not produced 
by the extensive diarrhea the discharge becomes arrested in from five 
to ten days and a rapid recovery takes place. While the diarrhea com- 
plication is a serious one, and may greatly weaken the animal, it rarely 
becomes so intense as to assume the name of dysentery, and it rarely 
becomes hemorrhagic ; it is rather a diarrhea of anseinia. An enteri- 
tis takes place in an animal weakened by the previous action of the 
disease, and there is not sufficient vitality of the organ itself to resist 
the inflammation, but this is a superficial inflammation, with destructiou 
only of the tissue of the surface of the intestines, which allows a rapid 
healing. Kapid recovery takes place, and the promptitude with which 
the intestines can commence to digest and assimilate food when the 
diarrhea is checked is frequently surprising. 

Complication of the lungs. — If at any time during the course of the 
fever the animal is exposed to cold or draughts of air, or in any other 
way to the causes of repercussion, the lungs may be affected. In the 
majority of cases, however, after three, four, or five days of the fever, 
the congestion of the lungs commences without any exposure or appa- 
rent exciting cause. This is due to the alteration of the blood, which 
allows a more easy osmosis of the blood into the surrounding tissues 
and to the checking of the capillary blood vessels, produced by the in- 
creased rapidity and force of the circulation. Unless this congestion 
of the lungs is relieved at once it is followed by an inflammatory prod- 
uct, a fibrinous pneumonia. This pneumonia, while it is in its essence 
the same, differs from an ordinary pneumonia at the commencement by 
an insidious course. The animal commences to breath heavily, which 
becomes distinctly visible in the heaving of the flanks, the dilation of 
the nostrils, and frequently in the swaying movement of the unsteady 
body. The respirations increase in number, what little appetite re- 
mained is lost, the temperature increases one to two degrees, the pulse 
11035 31 



482 

becomes more rapid, .and at times, for a short period, more tense and 
full, but the previous poisoning of the specific disease has so weakened 
the tissues that it never becomes the characteristic full, tense pulse of 
a simple pneumouia. 

On percussion of the chest dullness is found over the inflamed areas ; 
on auscultation at the base of the neck over the trachea a tubular 
murmur is heard. The crepitant rales and tubular murmurs of pneu- 
monia are heard on the sides of the chest if the pneumonia is periph- 
eral, but in pneumonia complicating influenza the inflamed portions 
are frequently disseminated in islands of variable size and are some- 
times deep seated, in which case the characteristic auscultory symptoms 
are sometimes wanting. From this time on the symptoms of the ani- 
mal are those of an ordinary grave pneumonia, rendered more severe 
by occurring in a debilitated animal. After resolution, however, and 
absorption into the lungs convalesence is rapid, and recovery takes 
place perhaps more quickly than it does in the simple form of the dis- 
ease. There is a cough, at first hacky and aborted, later more full and 
moist, when we have a discharge from the nostrils which ismuco puru- 
lent, purulent, or hemorrhagic. As in simple pneumonia, in the outset 
this dischare may be " rusty," due to capillary hemorrhages. We find 
that the blood is thoroughly mixed with the matter, staining it evenly 
instead of being mixed with it in the form of clots. At the commence- 
ment of the complication the animal may be subject to chills, which 
may again occur in the course of the disease, in which case, if severe, 
an unfavorable termination by gangrene may be looked for. If gan- 
grene occurs, ushered in by severe chills, a rapid elevation of tempera- 
ture, a tumultuous heart, a flaky discharge from the nostrils, and a fetid 
breath, the symptoms are identical with those which occur in gangrene 
complicating other diseases. 

Complication of the brain. — At any time during the course of the dis- 
ease, at an early period if the fever has been intense from the outset, 
but more frequently after three or four days in ordinary cases, a con- 
gestion of the brain may occur. The animal, which has been stupid and 
immobile, becomes' suddenly restless, walks forward in the stall until it 
fastens its head in the corner. If in a box stall and it becomes dis- 
placed from its position, it follows the wall with the nose and eyes, rub- 
biugagaiustit.until.itreaches.the corner and again fastens itself. It may 
become more violent and rear and plunge. If disturbed by the entrance 
of the attendant or any loud noise or bright light, it will stamp with its 
fore feet and strike with its hind feet, but is not definite in fixing the 
object which it is resisting, which is a diagnostic point between menin- 
gitis and rabies, and which renders the animal with the former disease 
less dangerous to handle. If fastened by a rope to a stake or post the 
animal will wander in a circle at the end of the rope. It wanders al- 
most invariably in one direction, either from the right to left or from 
left to right, in different cases, which is dependent upon a greater con- 



r 483 

gestion of one side of the brain than the other. The pupils may be 
dilated or contracted, or we may find one condition in one eye and the 
opposite in the other. 

The period of excitement is followed by one of profound coma, in 
which the animal is immobile, the head hanging and placed against 
the corner of the stall, the body limp, and the motion, if demanded of 
the animal, unsteady. Little or no attention will be paid to the sur- 
rounding noises, the crack of a whip, or even a blow on the surface of 
the body. The respiration becomes slower, the pulsations are dimin- 
ished, the coma lasts for variable time, to be followed by excesses of 
violence, after which the two alternate, but if severe the period of coma 
becomes longer and longer until the animal dies of spasms of the lungs 
or of heart failure. It may die from injuries which occur in the ungov- 
ernable attacks of violence. 

Complication of the feet. — The feet are the organs which are next in 
frequency predisposed to congestion. This congestion takes place in 
the laminae (podophyllous structures) of the feet. The stupefied animal 
is roused from its condition by the excessive pain produced in the feet, 
and assumes the position of a foundered horse ; that is, if the fore feet 
alone are affected they are carried forward until they rest on the heels, 
and if the hind feet are affected all of the feet are carried forward rest- 
ing on their heels, the hind ones as near the center of gravity as possi- 
ble. In some cases the stupor of the animal is so great that the pain 
is not felt, and little or no alternation of the position of the animal is 
noticeable. The foot is found hot to the touch, and after a given time 
the depressed convex sole of the typical founder is recognized. Other 
complications may occur, due to the action of exciting causes, and we 
may have a severe corysa, laryngitis, pharyngitis or even congestion of 
the kidneys, followed by nephritis, congestion of the spleen or of any 
other organ. 

Pleurisy. — This is a rare complication, but when it does occur it is 
ushered in by the usual symptoms of depression, rapid pulse, small 
respiration, elevation of the temperature, subcutaneous oedema of the 
legs and under surface of the belly, and we find a line of dullness on 
either side of the chest and an absence of respiratory murmur at the 
lower part. It is usually severe, and we find an effusion filling one- 
fourth to one- third of the thoracic cavity in from thirty-six to forty-eight 
hours. 

The laryngobrouchitis is not a frequent complication nor a very 
serious one. It is ushered in by a cough, which is rough and fatty, a 
purulent discharge from the nostrils and an enlargement of the sur- 
rounding lymphatic ganglia. 

Pericarditis is an occasional complication of influenza, never occurring 
alone or in connection with other organs in the chest cavity. It is 
ushered in by chills, elevation of the temperature ; the pulse becomes 
rapid, thready, and imperceptible. The heart murmurs become indis- 



484 

tinct or can not be heard. A venous pulse is seen on the line of the 
jugular veins along the neck. Respiration becomes more difficult and 
rapid. If the animal is moved the symptoms become more marked, or 
it may drop suddenly dead from heart failure. 

Peritonitis, or inflammation of the membranes lining the belly and 
covering the organs contained in it, sometimes takes place. The general 
symptoms are similar to those of a commencing pericarditis. The local 
symptoms are those of pain, especially to pressure on side of the flanks 
and belly ; distension of the latter, and sometimes the formation of flatus 
or gas, and constipation. 

Diagnosis. — The diagnosis of influenza is based upon a continued fever, 
with great depression and symptoms of stupor and coma; the rapid, 
dark saffron, ooher, yellowish discoloration of the mucous membranes, 
swelling of the legs and soft tissues of the genitals. When these symp- 
toms have lasted for a greater or less time, the diagnosis of the locali- 
zation of the fever or complication is based upon the same symptoms 
that are produced in the more local diseases from other causes, but in 
influenza the local symptoms are frequently masked or even entirely 
hidden by the intense stupor of the animal, which renders it insensible 
to pain. The evidence of colic and congestion, which is followed by 
diarrhea, fills the symptoms for the diagnosis of enteritis. The rapid 
breathing or difficulty of respiration forms the suspicion at once of com- 
plication of the lungs, but as we have seen in the study of the symptoms 
the local evidences of lung lesious are frequently hidden. Again, we 
have seen that inflammation of the feet or founder complicating influ- 
enza is frequently not shown on account of the insensibility to pain on 
the part of the animal, which iudicates the importance of running the 
hand daily over the hoofs to detect any sudden elevation of temperature 
on their surface. 

The diagnosis of brain trouble is based upon the excessive violence 
which occurs in the course of the disease, for during the intervening 
period or coma there is no means of determining that it is due to this 
complication. Severe cases of influenza may simulate anthrax in the 
horse. In both we have stupor, the intense coloration of the mucous 
membranes of the eyes and and a certain amount of swelling of the 
legs and under surface of the belly. The diagnosis here can only be 
made by microscopic examination of the blood. In strangles, equine 
variola, and scalma we have an intense red, rosy coloration of the mu- 
cous membranes, full, tense pulse, and although in these diseases we 
may have depression, we do not have the stupor and coma, except in 
severe cases which have lasted for some days. In influenza we have 
no evidence of the formation of pus on the mucous membranes as we 
did in the other diseases, except in the conjunctiva of the eyes, where, 
however, we have had a profuse serous discharge, producing the con- 
junctivitis. 

In severe pneumonia (lung fever) we may have profound coma, dark 



485 

yellowish coloration of the mucous membranes, and swelling of the 
under surface of the belly and legs, but in pneumonia we have the his- 
tory of the difficulty of breathing and an acute fever of a sthenic type 
from the outset, and the other symptoms do not occur for several days; 
while in influenza we have the history of characteristic symptoms for 
several days before the rapid breathing and difficulty of respiration in- 
dicate the appearance of the complication. Without the history it is 
frequently difficult to diagnose a case of influenza of several days' 
standing complicated by pneumonia from a case of severe pneumonia 
of five to six days' standing, but from a prognostic point of view it is 
immaterial, as the treatment of both are identical. 

Prognosis. — Influenza is an excessively serious disease for many rea- 
sons. We find the majority of horses susceptible to this virus when 
exposed to it. It is fatal to a large number of animals even with the 
best treatment, and is especially fatal to the young and to those ani- 
mals which are more valuable from their fine breeding, as the disease 
occurs in a more serious form in well-bred animals than it does in the 
lymphatic and more common ones. It is more severe than the other 
epizootic diseases, as its contagiousness is much greater than in the 
others. 

The fatal issue of influenza varies in different epizootics ; where the 
disease is occurring only in scattered cases through a large town or 
country locality, and in some epizootics, the majority of the cases run a 
mild form without complications; at other times, where the disease 
occurs in enzootic and epizootic form, we find over 50 per cent, of the 
cases complicated by disease of the lungs ; in others a large number of 
cases are complicated by trouble of the intestines. 

Alterations. — The alteration of influenza occurs in the blood, and con- 
sists of a rapid destruction of the red blood corpuscles, which are the 
carriers of oxygen from the lungs to all parts of the body. The animal 
is always found emaciated. The tissues throughout the body are found 
stained, and of a more or less yellowish hue, due to the disintegrated 
blood corpuscles which were at first the cause of the characterized dis- 
coloration of the mucous membranes in the living animal. There is 
always found a congested condition of all the organs, muscles, and in- 
terstitial tissues of the body. The coverings of the brain and spinal 
cord partake in the congested and discolored condition of the rest of the 
tissues. 

Other alterations are dependent entirely upon the complications. If 
the lungs have been affected, we find effusions identical in their intimate 
nature with those of simple pneumonia, but they differ somewhat in 
their general appearance in not being so circumscribed in their area of 
invasion. Complication of the intestines offers the red, puffy, swelling 
or congested appearance which we have in an ordinary enteritis, with 
peeling from the surface of the membranes of the intestinal tube. The 
alterations of meningitis and laminitis are identical with those of 
sporadic cases of founder and inflammation of the brain. 



486 

Treatment— While the appetite remains the patient should have a 
moderate quantity of sound hay, good oats, and bran; or even a little 
fresh clover, if obtainable, can be given in small quantities. With the 
first decided symptoms of fever the antipyretics are indicated, of which 
we have a variable choice. Bleeding in this disease is a questionable 
treatment, and is only to be employed at the very outset of the disease. 
In large, strong horses of a sanguinary temperament an abstraction of a 
few quarts of blood will frequently diminish the stupefaction, lower the 
temperature, slow the pulse and respiration and, render the course of 
the disease shorter by twelve or twenty-four hours. In some cases, how- 
ever, bleeding seems to increase the amount of depression, and it should 
never be used after the deep ocher color of the mucous membranes show 
that an extensive disintegration of the blood corpuscles has taken place. 
Derivatives in the form of essential oils and mustard poultices, baths 
of alcohol, turpentine and hot water, after which the animal must be 
immediately dried and blanketed, serve to waken the animal up from 
the stupor and relieve the congestion of the internal organs. This 
treatment is especially indicated when complication by congestion of 
the lungs, intestines, or of the brain is threatened. Quinine and sali- 
cylic acid in dram doses will lower the temperature, but too continuous 
use of quinine in some cases increases the after depression. Aconite is 
especially indicated, as in addition to its action on the circulation it 
seems to be almost a specific in certain cases in relieving the congestion 
of the brain and the nervous symptoms produced by the latter. Iodide 
of potash reduces the excessive nutrition of the congested organs and 
thereby reduces the temperature; again, this drug in moderate quanti- 
ties is a stimulant to the digestive tract and acts as a diuretic, causing 
the elimination of waste matter by the kidneys. Antimony, in guarded 
doses of one-half dram to 1 dram, repeated not more than two or three 
times, will reduce excessive fever, and can be used with special advan- 
tage at the first appearance of complications, but it must be used with 
care, as it is an irritant to the digestive tract and may produce intestinal 
complication, causing a severe diarrhea. Small does of Glauber salts 
and bicarbonate of soda, used from the outset, stimulate the digestive 
tract and prevent constipation and its evil results. 

In cases of severe depression and weakness of the heart, digitalis can 
be used with advantage. At the end of the fever, and when convales- 
cence is established, alcohol in one-half pint doses and good ale in pint 
doses may be given as stimulants ; to these may be added dram doses 
of turpentine. 

In complication of the intestines camphor and asafetida are most 
frequently used to relieve the pain causing the colics ; diarrhea is also 
relieved by the use of bicarbonate of soda, nitrate of potash, and 
drinks made from boiled rice or starch, to which may be added small 
doses of laudanum. 

In complication of the lungs iodide of potash and digitalis are most 



' 487 

frequently indicated, in addition to the remedies used for the disease 
itself. 

Founder occurring as a complication of fever is difficult to treat. It 
is, unfortunately, frequently not recognized until inflammatory changes 
have gone on for some days. If recognized at once, local bleeding and 
the use of hot or cold water, as the condition of the animal will permit, 
are most useful, but in the majority of cases the stupefied animal is un. 
able to be moved satisfactorily or to have one foot lifted for local treat- 
ment, and the only treatment consists in local bleeding above the cor- 
onary bauds and the application of poultices. 

For congestion of the brain large doses of aconite and small repeated 
doses of mercury form the ordinary mode of treatment. During con- 
valescence small doses of alkalines may be kept up for some little time, 
but the greatest care must be used, while furnishing the animal with 
plenty of nutritious, easily digested food, not to overload the intestinal 
tract, causing constipation and consecutive diarrhea. Special care must 
be taken for some weeks not to expose the animal to cold. 

SEQUELAE OP INFLUENZA. 

Anasarca. — A previous attack of influenza is the most common pre- 
disposing cause of a serious disease of the nervous system ; paralysis 
of the vaso-motor nerves which govern the circulation in the smaller 
blood vessels and capillaries. This trouble, which is also known as 
purpura hemorrhagia and as scarlatina, appears most frequently a few 
weeks after convalescence is established. It occurs more frequently in 
those animals which have made a rapid convalescence and are appar- 
ently perfectly well, and in those which have evidently perfectly 
regained their health, than it does in those which have made a slower 
recovery. The exciting cause of this trouble is usually exposure to 
cold; and again, exposure to cold draughts of air on the heated but not 
necessarily sweating animal is more apt to cause the trouble than ex- 
posure to rain or wet. This latter will more frequently cause complica- 
tion of the internal organs, such as pneumonia, pleurisy, etc. 

Anasarca commences by symptoms which are excessively variable. 
The local lesions may be confined to a small portion of the animal's body 
and the constitutional phenomena be nul. The appearance and gravity 
of the local lesions may be so unlike, from difference of location, that 
they seem to belong to a separate disease, and complications may com- 
pletely mask the original trouble. 

In the simplest form the first symptom noticed is a swelling, or sev- 
eral swellings occurring on the surface of the body, on the forearm, the 
leg, the under surface of the belly, or on the side of the head. The tu- 
mefaction is at first the size of a hen's egg ; not hot, little sensitive, and 
distinctly circumscribed by a marked line from the surrounding healthy 
tissue. These tumors gradually extend until they coalesce, and in a 
few hours we have swelling up of the legs, legs and belly, or the head, 



488 

to an enormous size; they have always the characteristic constricted 
border, which looks as if it had been tied with a cord. In the nostrils 
are found small reddish spots or petechias, which gradually assume a 
brownish and frequently a black color. Examination of the mouth will 
frequently reveal similar lesions on the surface of the tongue, along the 
lingual gutter and on the frsenum. If the external swelling has been 
on the head the petechias of tbe mucous membranes are apt to be more 
numerous and to coalesce into patches of larger size than when the 
dropsy is confined to the legs. The animals may be rendered stiff' by 
the swelling of the legs, or be annoyed by the awkward swollen head, 
which at times may be so enormous as to resemble that of a hippopot- 
amus rather than that of a horse. During this period the temperature 
remains normal, the pulse, if altered at all, is only a little weaker, the 
respiration is only hurried if the swelling of the head infringes on the 
caliber of the nostrils. The appetite remains normal. The animal is 
attentive to all that is going on, and, except for the swelling, appar- 
ently in perfect health. 

In from two to four days the tissues can no longer resist the pressure 
of the exuded fluid. Overthe surface of the skin which covers the dropsy 
we find a slight serous sweating, which loosens the epidermis and dries 
so as to simulate the eruption of some cutaneous disease. If this is ex- 
cessive we may see irritated spots which are suppurating. In the nasal 
fossse the hemorrhagic spots have acted as irritants, and, inviting an 
increased amount of blood to the Schneiderian membrane, produce a 
coryza or even a catarrh. We may now find some enlargement and 
peripheral oedema of the lymphatic glands, which are fed from the af- 
fected part. The thermometer indicates a slight rise in the body tem- 
perature, while the pulse and respiration are somewhat accelerated. 
The appetite usually remains good. In the course of a few days the 
temperature may have reached 102°, 103°, or 104° F. 

Fever is established, not an essential or specific fever in any way, but 
a simple secondary fever produced by the dead material from the sur- 
face or superficial suppuration, and by the oxidization and absorption 
of the colloid mass contained in the tissues. Just such a fever as would 
be produced by an excoriation of a considerable surface of the skin in 
an animal, otherwise sound, or by the absorption of the oadema result- 
ing from a blow. 

Suppuration may become excessive from the great distension and loss 
of vitality of the skin. Here the lesion is visible and the constitutional 
phenomena are marked. 

Lymphangitis may be established from the large amount of irritating 
material which the ducts and glands of the lymphatic sj-stem are forced 
to carry from the affected part. 

Gangrene may be developed in spots from the size of a pea to that of 
a hen's egg. The great distension of the subcutaneous layer of con- 
nective tissue or the excessive hemorrhage in the submucous layer may 



489 

completely destroy the vitality of the part, and brown and then black 
masses of slough appear, to be eliminated and leave a deep rosy ulcer 
in their place. This is more common in the nose and under the tongue. 

Excessive swelling of the head.^-The swelling of the head may increase 
and extend outside to the throat or to the nostrils until the latter are 
closed, or to the larynx, which is so pressed upon as to render respira- 
tion difficult or impossible. The same complication renders mastication 
and deglutition equally difficult. 

Metastasis. — This is a frequently dreaded complication. If the trouble 
has originally been in the legs and belly it may suddenly commence to 
appear in the head, and disappear from the part first affected, or the 
opposite more favorable change sometimes occurs, the dangerous swell- 
ing of the head disappearing to attack the belly or legs. 

Enteric oedema. — The effusion on the exterior may take another course 
and pass to the intestine, causing symptoms of colic, which either ends 
fatally or more rarely terminates by a profuse diarrhoea, which is some- 
times hemorrhagic in character. 

Pulmonary oedema. — Marked dyspnoea, without swelling of the head, 
is indicative of metastasis into the parenchyma of the lungs, which will 
rapidly show dullness on percussion and tubular murmurs on ausculta- 
tion. The tumefaction leaves the exterior and attacks the lungs, and 
the animal dies of asphyxia. 

Sep ticwmia. —There is certainly no disease in veterinary practice 
which offers a more favorable field for the development of septicaemia. 
The large mass of colloid matter held at the temperature of the animal 
body could not be surpassed in the gelatine tube of bacteriological lab- 
oratory as a nutriment for the putrefactive ferments. Septicaemia is 
ushered in by general rigor, sudden elevation of temperature, and 
marked symptoms of coma. 

TERMINATIONS. 

Resolution. — The simple form of the disease most frequently termi- 
nates favorably on the eighth or tenth day by absorption of the effusion, 
with usually a profuse diuresis, and with or without diarrhea. The ap- 
petite remains good or is at times capricious. The surface of the body 
is dirty from desquamated epithelium, and at times there is a complete 
loss of hair, giving the appearance of a bad case of sarcoptic mange. At 
other times the absorption is slow, lasting for some weeks with tendency 
to relapses. Again there may be left some permanent induration, the 
result of embryonic growth. 

Death. — Death may occur from mechanical asphyxia, produced by 
closure of the nostrils or closure of the glottis. Metastasis to the lungs 
is almost invariably fatal, causing death by asphyxia. Metastatis to 
the intestines may cause death from pain, enteritis, or hemorrhage. 

Excessive suppuration., lymphangitis, and gangrene are causes of a fatal 
termination by exhaustion. Mortal exhaustion is again produced by 
inability to swallow in cases of excessive swelling of the head. 



490 

Peritonitis may arise secondary to the enteric oedema, or by perfora- 
tion of the stomach or intestines by a gangrenous spot. 

Septicaemia terminates fatally with its usual train of symptoms. 

The essential alterations of anasarca are exceedingly simple; the 
capillaries are dilated, the lymphatic spaces between the fibers of the 
connective tissue are filled with serum, and the coagulable portion of 
the blood presents a yellowish or citrine mass, jelly-like in consistency, 
which has stretched out the tissue like the meshes of a sponge. Where 
the effusion has occurred between the muscles, as in the head, these are 
found dissected and separated from each other like those of a hog's head 
by the masses of fat. The surface of the skin is desquamated and fre- 
quently denuded of the hair. Frequently there are traces of suppuration 
and of ulceration. The mucous membrane of the nose is found studded 
with small, hemorrhagic spots, sometimes red, more frequently brown or 
black, often coalesced with each other in irregular sized patches and sur- 
rounded by a reddish zone, the product of irritation. If oedema of the in- 
testines has occurred the membrane is found four or five times its normal 
thickness, reddish in color with hemorrhages on the free surface. (Edema 
of the lungs leaves these organs distended. On section a yellowish fluid 
runs out, like the fluid does from lungs which have been filled with water 
in the dissecting room. The secondary alterations vary according to the 
complications. There are frequently the lesions of asphyxia; externally 
we find ulcers, abscesses, and gangrenous spots and the deep ulcers 
resulting from the latter. The lymphatic cords and glands are found, 
with all the lesions of lymphangitis. Again are found the traces of ex- 
cessive emaciation, or the lesions of septicaemia. Except from the com- 
plications the blood is not altered in anasarca. If previous to the 
attack the animal had senemia the tissues will be infiltrated and the 
pallor and other appearances of aenemia will be found. If prior to the 
attack the animal is in moderate health, with unaltered blood, the blood 
will be found to clot with the typical change of the buffy coat of the 
horse. In death by asphyxia the blood will be found fluid, black in 
color, but gradually turns red, and clots on exposure to the air. Dick- 
erhoff mentions fibrinous pneumonia among the alterations. I myself 
have never seen it occur. 

The diagnosis of anasarca must principally be made from farcy or 
glanders. In anasarca the swelling is nonsensitive, while sensitive in 
the acute swelling of farcy. The nodes of farcy are distinct and hard 
and never circumscribed, as in the other disease. The eruption of 
glanders on the mucuous membranes is nodular, hard, and pellet-like. 
The redness disappears on pressure. In case of excessive swelling of 
the head, in anasarca, there may occur an extensive sero-fibrinous exu- 
dation from the mucous membranes of the nose, poured out as a semi- 
fluid mass or as a cast of the nasal fossae, never having the appearance 
or typical oily character, which it has in glanders. The inflammation 
of the lymphatic cords and glands in anasarca does not produce the 
hard, indurated character which is found in farcy. 



491 

Septiccemia may have occurred primarily, or as a complication of ana- 
sarca. The diagnosis must be from the history, and the prognosis is 
of little import. 

While this is not an excessively fatal disease the prognosis must al- 
ways be guarded. The majority of cases run a simple course and ter- 
minate favorably at the end of eight or ten days, or possibly after one 
to two relapses, requiring several weeks for complete recovery. Effu- 
sion into the head renders the prognosis much more grave from the pos- 
sible danger of mechanical asphyxia. Threatened mechanical asphyxia 
is especially dangerous on account of the risk of blood-poisoning after 
an operation of tracheotomy. 

Metastasis to the viscera, or from the legs to the head, is a most seri- 
ous complication, while metastasis from the head or other portions to 
the belly and legs is favorable, as removing, for a moment at least, all 
danger of immediate death. The prognosis is otherwise based on the 
complications, their extent and their individual gravity, existing, as 
they do here, in an already debilitated subject. 

Treatment. — The treatment of anasarca may have been as variable as 
are the lesions. The indications are at once shown by the alterations 
and mechanism of the disease, which we have just studied. These are: 

(1) Eegulation of the disordered circulation of the blood and 
strengthening of the vaso-motor system. 

(2) Promotion of absorption of the colloid mass, which has infiltrated 
the tissues. This, of course, is based upon oxidization in order to meta- 
morphose the exudation into absorbable crystalloids. 

(3) Prevention of metastasis, which is the most frequent fatal termi- 
nation of this trouble, if not directly by oedema of the lung or enteritis, 
indirectly by further weakening the already debilitated system. 

(4) The immediate treatment of the complications, each, per se, as- 
phyxia and gangrene, being the two which most frequently call for ac- 
tive interference. 

These indications call for constitutional and local remedies. 

Blood-letting would at first seem totally contra-indicated, but in cer- 
tain cases it acts like a charm. Debilitated, as an animal usually is 
when attacked by anasarca, we have yet seen that one of the great pre- 
disposing causes is the plethoric habit. The current of blood, like a 
swollen river after a spring storm, can be thrown from its usual course 
by the slightest side channel. The use of bleeding requires the acute 
perception of the practitioner to be put upon the alert to regulate it. 
Not only the present condition, but the previous state of health, and the 
probable future hygienic and medical care must be taken into consider- 
ation. Given a case that will admit of bleeding, the quantity to be 
taken is always a minimum one, and it is to be regulated by the effect 
upon the pulse during the bleeding. 

With the weakened walls of the vessels but a little lessening of the 
pressure will produce a vacuum, when compared with the condition 



492 

found in an ordinary blood-vessel system, with normal elastic walls. 
Bleeding is only permissible at the outset of the disease when the 
tumors are still isolated. When the tumefaction has coalesced all the 
blood is required to oxidize the mass of effused colloid matter. 

Hygiene now comes into play as the most important factor. Oats, 
oat and hay tea, milk, eggs, anything which the stomach or rectum can 
be coaxed to take care of, must be employed to give the nutriment 
which is the only thing that will permanently strengthen the tissues, 
and they must be strengthened in order to keep the capillaries at their 
proper caliber. 

Laxatives, diaphoretics, and diuretics must be used to stimulate the 
emunctories so that they shall carry off the large amount of the prod- 
ucts of decomposition, which result from the stagnated effusions of 
anasarca. Of these the sulphate of soda in small repeated doses, and 
the nitrate of potash and bicarbonate of soda in small quantity, and 
the chlorate of potash in single large doses, will be found useful. 
Williams cites the chlorate of potash as an antiputrid; it is useful, I 
believe, because it frees oxygen, and oxygen is a chemical purifier. 

Stimulants and astringents are directly indicated. The animal wants 
wakening up, everything in it wants a shock, and a belt to hold it in 
place. Spirits of turpentine serves the double purpose of a cardiac 
stimulant and a powerful warm diuretic, for the kidneys in this disease 
will stand a wonderful amount of work. Camphor can be used with 
advantage. Coffee and tea are two of the diffusible stimulants which 
are too much neglected in veterinary medicine ; both are valuable ad- 
juncts in treatment in anasarca, as they are during convalescence at 
the end of any grave disease which has tended to render the patient 
anaemic. Dilute sulphuric acid and hydrochloric acid are perhaps the 
best examples of a combination of stimulant, astringent, and tonic 
which can be employed. The simple astringents of mineral origin, sul- 
phates of iron, copper, etc., are useful as digestive tonics ; I doubt if 
they have any constitutional effect. The vegetable astringents, tannic 
acid, etc., have not proved efficacious in my hands. Iodide of potash 
in small doses serves the triple purpose of digestive tonic, denutritive 
for inflammation, and diuretic. 

Externally. — Sponging the swollen parts, especially the head, when 
the swelling occurs here, is most useful. The bath should be at an ex- 
treme of temperature — either ice-cold to constrict the tissues, or hot 
water to act as an emollient and to favor circulation. Vinegar may be 
added as an astringent. When we have excessively denuded surfaceSj 
suppuration, or open wounds, disinfectants should be added to the 
wash. 

In cases of excessive swelling, especially of the head, mechanical re- 
lief may be required. Punctures of the part should be made with the 
hot iron even in country practice, as no other disease so predisposes to 
septic contamination. When mechauical asphyxia is threatened tra- 



493 

cheotomy may be demanded. Here, again, the hot iron should be used, 
and disinfectant applications should be constantly applied. With the 
first evidence of dyspnoea, not due to closing of the nostrils or glottis, 
or with the first pawiug which gives rise to a suspicion of colic, a 
mustard plaster should be applied over the whole belly and chest. The 
sinapism will draw the current of the circulation to the exterior, the 
metastasis to the lungs or intestines is prevented, and the enfeebled, 
nervous system is stimulated to renewed vigor by the peripheral irrita- 
tion. The organs are encouraged by it to renewed functional activity; 
the local inflammation produced by it favors absorption of the exuda- 
tion. The objection to the use of blisters is their more severe action 
and the danger of mortification. Septicaemia, when occurring as a 
complication, requires the ordinary treatment for the putrid diseases, 
with little hope of a good result. 

After recovery the animal regains its ordinary health, and in my own 
experience there has been no predisposition to a return of the disease. 

STRANGLES. 

Synonyms: Distemper, colt-ill, catarrhal fever, one form of ship- 
ping fever, Febris pyogeniea. 

Definition. — Strangles is an infectious disease of the horse, mule, and 
ass; seen most frequently in young animals, and usually leaving an 
animal which has had one attack protected from future trouble of the 
same kind. It appears as a fever, lasting for a few days, with forma- 
tion of matter or pus in the air tubes and lungs, and frequently the 
formation of abscesses in various parts of the body, both near the sur- 
face and in the internal organs. It usually leaves the animal after con- 
valescence perfectly healthy and as good as it was before, but some- 
times leaves it a roarer, or is followed by the development of deep- 
seated abscesses which may prove fatal. 

Causes. — The cause of strangles is infection by direct contact with 
an animal suffering from the disease, or indirectly through contact with 
the discharges from an infected animal, or by means of the atmosphere 
in which an infected animal has been. There are many predisposing 
causes which render some animals much more subject to contract the 
disease than others. Early age, which has given it the popular name 
of colt-ill, offers many more subjects than the later periods of life do, 
for the animal can contract the disease but once, and the large majority 
of adult and old animals have derived an immunity from previous at- 
tacks. At three, four, or five years of age the colt, which has been at 
home, safe on a meadow or in a cozy barnyard, far from all intercourse 
with other animals or sources of contagion, is first put to work and 
driven to the market town or county fairs to be exposed to an atmos- 
phere or to stables contaminated by other horses suffering from disease 
and serving as infecting agents. If it fails to contract it there, it is 
sold and shipped in foul, undisinfected railway cars, to dealers' stables, 



494 

equally unclean, where it meets many opportunities of infection. If it 
escapes so far, it reaches the time for heavier work and daily contact 
on the streets of towns or large cities, with numerous other horses and 
mules, some of which are sure to be the bearers of the germs of this or 
some other infectious disease, and at last it succumbs. 

The period of the eruption of the last permanent teeth, or the end of 
the period of development from the colt to an adult horse, at which time 
the animals usually have a tendency to fatten and be excessively full- 
blooded, also seems to be a predisposing period for the contraction of tbis 
as well as of the other infectious diseases. Thoroughbred colts are very 
susceptible, and frequently contract strangles at a somewhat earlier age 
than those of more humble origin. Mules and asses are much less sus- 
ceptible and are but rarely affected. Other animals are not subject to 
this disease, but there is a certain analogy between it and distemper in 
dogs. After exposure to infection there is a period of incubation of the 
disease, lasting from two to four days, during which the animal enjoys 
its ordinary health. 

Symptoms. — The horse at first is a little sluggish if used, or when 
placed in its stable, is somewhat dejected, paying but moderate atten- 
tion to the various disturbing surroundings. Its appetite is somewhat 
diminished in many cases, while in some cases the animal eats well 
throughout. Thirst is increased, but not a great deal of water is taken 
at one time. If a bucket of water is placed in the manger, before the 
patient, it will dip its nose into it and swallow a few mouthfuls, allow- 
ing some of it to drip back, and then stop, to return to it in a short 
time. The coat becomes dry and the hairs stand on end. At times the 
horse will have chills of one or the other leg, the fore quarters or hind 
quarters, or in severe cases of the whole body, with trembling of the 
muscles, dryness of the skin, and its hairs standing on end. 

If the eyes and mouth are examined the membranes are found red- 
dened to a bright rosy color. The pulse is quickened and the breathing 
may be slightly accelerated. At the end of a couple of days a cough is 
heard and a discharge begins to come from the nostrils. This discharge 
is at first watery ; it then becomes thicker, somewhat bluish in color, 
and sticky, and finally it assumes the yellowish color of matter and 
increases greatly in quantity. 

At the outset the colt may sneeze occasionally and a cough is heard. 
The cough is at first repeated and harsh, but soon becomes softer and 
moist as the discharge increases, ^gain the cough varies according to 
the source of the discharge, for in light cases this may be only a 
catarrh of the nasal canals, or it may be from the throat, the windpipe, 
or the air-tubes of the lungs, or even from the lungs themselves. Ac- 
cording to the organ affected the symptoms and character of cough 
will be similar to those of a laryngitis, bronchitis, or lung fever caused 
by ordinary cold. 

Shortly after the discharge is seen a swelling takes place under the 



49.5 

jaw, or in the intermaxillary space. This is at first puffy, swollen, 
somewhat hot and tender, and finally becomes distinctly so, and an 
abscess is felt, or having broken itself the discharge is seen dripping 
from a small opening. When the discharge from the nostrils has fully 
developed the fever usually disappears and the animal regains its appe- 
tite, unless the swelling is sufficient to interfere with the function of 
the throat, causing pain on any attempt to swallow. At the end of 
four or six days the discharge lessens, the soreness around the throat 
diminishes, the horse regains its appetite, and in two weeks has re- 
gained its usual condition. Old and strong horses may have the disease 
in so light a form that the fever is not noticeable ; they may continue 
to eat and perform their ordinary work as usual and no symptom may 
be seen beyond a slight discharge from the nose and a rare cough, 
which is not sufficient to worry any but the most particular owner. 
But, on the other hand, the disease may assume a malignant form or 
become complicated so as to become a most serious disease, and even 
prove fatal in many cases. Inflammation of the larynx and bronchi, if 
excessive, will produce violent, harsh coughing, which may almost 
asphyxiate the animal. The large amount of discharge may be mixed 
with air by the difficult breathing, and the nostrils, the front of the 
animal, manger and surrounding objects become covered with a white 
foam. The inflammation may be in the lung itself (lobular pneumonia) 
and cause the animal to breathe heavily, heave at the flanks, and show 
great distress. In this condition marked symptoms of fever are seen ; 
the appetite is lost, the coat is dry, the horse stands back in its stall at 
the end of the halter strap with his neck extended and his legs propped 
apart to favor its breathing. This condition may end by resolution, 
leaving the horse for some time with a severe cough, or the animal may 
die from choking up of the lungs (asphyxia). 

The swelling under the jaw may be excessive, and if the abscess is not 
opened it burrows toward the throat or to the side and causes inflam- 
mation of the parotid glands and breaks in annoying fistulas at the 
sides of the throat and even up as high as the ears. Eoaring may occur 
either during a moderately severe attack from inflammation of the throat 
(larynx), or at a later period as the result of continued lung trouble. 
Abscesses may develop in other parts of the body, in the poll, in the 
withers, or in the spaces of loose tissue under the arms, in the fold of 
the thigh, and, in entire horses, in the testicles. 

During the ^course of the disease or later, when the animal seems to 
be.ou the road to perfect recovery, abscesses may form in the internal 
organs and produce symptoms characteristic of disease of those parts. 

Delirium. — Eoaring, plunging, wandering in a circle, or standing with 
the head wedged in a corner of the stall, indicates the collection of 
matter in the brain. Sudden and severe lung symptems, without pre- 
vious discharge, point to an abscess between the lungs, in the medias- 
tinum; colic, which is often continuous for days, is theiresult of the 



496 

formation of an abscess in some part of the abdominal cavity, usually 
in the mesentery. 

Pathology. — The lesions of strangles are found on the surface of the 
mucous membranes, essentially of the respiratory system and in the 
loose connective tissue fibers of the internal organs and glands, and 
consist of acute inflammatory changes, tending to the formation of 
matter. The blood is unaltered, though it is rich in fibrine, and if the 
animal has died of asphyxia it is found dark colored and uncoagulated 
when the body is first opened. If the animal has died while suffering 
from high fever the ordinary alterations throughout the body, which 
are produced by any fever not attended by alteration of blood, are 
found. 

Treatment. — Ordinary light cases require but little treatment beyond 
diet, warm washes, moistened hay, warm coverings, and protection from 
exposure to cold. The latter is urgently called for, as lung complica- 
tions, severe bronchitis, and laryngitis are often the results of neglect 
of this precaution. If the fever is excessive the horse may receive small 
quantities of Glauber salts (handful three times a day), as a laxative, 
bicarbonate of soda or niter in dram doses every few hours, and small 
doses of antimony, iodide of potash, aconite, or quinine. Steaming the 
head with the vapor of warm water poured over a bucket of bran and 
hay, in which belladonna leaves or tar have been placed, will allay the 
inflammation of the mucous membranes and greatly ease the cough. 

The swelling of the glands should be promptly treated by bathing 
with warm water and flaxseed poultices, and as soon as there is any 
evidence of the formation of matter it should be opened. Prompt action 
in this will often save serious complications. Blisters and irritating 
liniments should not be applied to the throat. When lung complica- 
tions show themselves the horse should have mustard applied to the 
belly and to the sides of the chest. When convalescence begins great 
care must be taken not to expose the animal to cold, which may bring 
on relapses, and while exercise is of great advantage it must not be 
turned into work until the animal has entirely regained its strength. 

SCALMA. 

The differentiation of the various diseases which have popularly been 
included under the terms of distemper and influenza up to a comparatively 
recent date, has been so slow and so tardily accepted by the majority 
of practitioners that we have been subjected to constantly seeing an- 
nounced and heralded as news in the daily papers the appearance of 
some new disease. These new diseases of the populace and of the em- 
piric are to us but the epizootic outbreak or the more severely mani- 
fested form of some ordinary contagious disease. We treat several 
cases of different troubles in the same stable without having the time 
or seeing the necessity of explaining them to the owner, when suddenly 
one of them spreads to the rest of the stable in an epizootic form, and 



497 

our clients will not understand tbatall of the animals have not suffered 
from the same illness. 

There is, however, one of the contagious fevers of the horse which has 
constantly been confounded with other diseases, and which has not been 
separated from them in our English text- books. As this disease has re- 
ceived no proper name in English, I shall use for it the name given by 
Professor Dieckerhoff, of Berlin, who first described it in the Adams 
Wochenschrift, XXIX, in 1885. 

Etymology. — The term u scalma " is derived from the old German word 
scalmo, scelmo, schelm, which indicates roguishness or knavishness, as 
great nervous irritability, especially of the temper, is one of the charac- 
teristics, almost diagnostic, symptoms of this disease. The term 
" Heimtiwlcische Krankheit? signifying malicious, treacherous, or mis- 
chievous, is also employed in German for the same trouble. I am not 
aware of any name in English or French which has been applied to it. 

As I am opposed to employing in veterinary medicine any of the 
nomenclature of human medicine, except for identical, simple, and in- 
flammatory diseases, or for intercommunicable contagious diseases, I 
will not offer the term " whooping cough " as a name, but I will suggest 
a certain similarity between the latter disease in man and scalma in the 
horse. 

Definition. — Scalma is a contagious and infectious febrile disease or 
the horse, with local lesions of the bronchi, trachea, and larynx, which 
is evidenced by cough. It is further characterized by great irritability 
of temper. It occurs as a stable plague; that is, in enzootic form, with, 
however, great variations in the susceptibility of the animals to con- 
tract it. It is rarely fatal except from complications. 

Incubation. — The period of incubation is from six to seven days, but 
the disease may develop in two days after exposure or it may delay its 
appearance for ten days. It spreads through a stable slowly, develop- 
ing at times in a horse placed in a stall where the previously sick one 
had stood, or it may pass next to an animal several stalls away. One 
attack is usually protective. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are ushered in by fever, in which the ac- 
celeration of the pulse and respiration is in no way in accord with the 
great elevation of temperature. With the appearance of the fever is 
developed a diffuse bronchitis, which is, however, subacute both in its 
character and in its course. At times the trouble of the bronchi may 
extend to the trachea, larynx, pharynx, or even to the nasal fossae. 

In two or three days a trifling grayish, albuminous discharge from 
the nostrils occurs, which continues, variable in quantity, for eight to 
fourteen days, or may even last for three weeks. The cough is short, 
rough, and painful, spasmodic in its occurrence and in character. The 
slight watery or slimy discharge may become more profuse, purulent, 
or even "rusty," if the bronchitis has extended to the neighboring 
structures. Pharyngeal discharge may take place. The respiration is 
11035 32 



498 

moderate and only affected during an excess of coughing, or in compli- 
cated cases. The pulse undergoes but little quickening. The tempera- 
ture rises rapidly to 39°, 40°, and in some cases even to 41.5° C (1074° F). 
The latter temperature usually, but not always, indicates complication 
by pleurisy. In ordinary cases the temperature drops in two or three 
days after the appearance of the cough. The hide is dry and rough, 
with the hairs on end, but the horse appears rather as an animal out of 
condition, than a sick one. Emaciation may be rapid. The mucous 
membranes are moderately reddened. The appetite is diminished, but 
the animal chews constantly. Deglutition, either of food or water, is 
frequently the cause of spasms of coughing, and these in turn seem to 
warn the animal against attempts at swallowing. On percussion no 
alteration of resonance is to be detected. On auscultation of the lungs 
mucous rales are heard, with at times tubular breathing ; the latter, 
however, we will study under the complications, as also the friction 
warning of pleurisy. Throughout the course of the disease we have 
still one constant and characteristic symptom — nervous irritability. 
With temperature of 104° to 107°E., the horse still flinches to the touch 
on the loins ; it stands frequently with the head up, and it is on the 
alert for the entrance of any one to the stall. The previously good tem- 
pered and quiet horse will turn and bite, will strike with the hind legs, 
or at the first touch to the side, head, or throat will half rear and back 
into the corner of the box, or breaking the halter turn backward out 
of the stall. 

The course of the disease is from five to eight days, but the cough 
may continue for two or three weeks with variable elevation of tempera- 
ture. As a stable plague the course is from two to three months, as 
the contagion is much more uncertain than in strangles or influenza. 
The termination is by resolution and recovery, or by complications. In 
resolution the temperature drops, the cough becomes less frequent and 
less spasmodic in character, the appetite returns, and no sign is left of 
the disease except the fever mark on the hoof. 

The complications are excessive spasms and pleurisy. In the former 
the cough may be so violent as to convulse the whole animal, the legs 
are spread and fixed, with the hind ones drawn slightly under the body. 
The head and neck are extended, with the muscles tense. The cough 
comes out by rapidly succeeding efforts, or with the first sound the 
larynx seems to close for a moment before the rest can follow. In two 
cases of my own the spasm has been so great that the animal has fallen 
to the ground. During these accesses the respiration becomes acceler- 
ated, and on auscultation of the trachea aud lungs the lubular murmur 
of an apparent pneumonia can be heard. This false murmur, however, 
disappears at the end of the attack. In the case which fell to the ground 
the horse would lie for a moment or two absolutely motionless. (In the 
first I believed that he had broken his neck.) The rapid respiration was 
tbeu followed by a long inspiration, the animal regained his feet, the 



499 

respiration became almost normal and the tubular murmur had dis- 
appeared. I have seen no fatal termination from this spasm of the 
pneuino-gastric, but can readily believe that traumatisms resulting from 
such attacks might prove fatal, or that the spasm might continue long 
enough to produce asphyxia. The fatal complication is pleurisy. This 
occurs when the horse has been kept at work after the development of 
the disease while suffering from a high fever, and is probably in no way 
specific, but the result of work on an animal with high temperature. 
The additional symptoms are those of an ordinary pleurisy. 

Diagnosis. — The diagnosis is based upon the elevation of the tempera- 
ture without corresponding acceleration of the pulse and of the respira- 
tions ; upon the retention of appetite and spinal reflex, with the great 
irritability of temper in the presence of a high temperature, and upon 
the spasmodic cough and auscultatory sounds of bronchitis with but 
trifling discharge. 

The diagnosis is made from oedematous pneumonia by the absence of 
the yellow colorations, the absence of pneumonia, and the less continu- 
ous high temperature ; from influenza by the absence of oedema, of the 
ochre coloration, and of the typhoid symptoms; from strangles by want 
of enlargement of the lymphatics, absence of purulent discharge and ab- 
scesses ; from variola by the nonappearance of pustules and enlarged 
lymphatics; from simple bronchitis, as the latter is sporadic, and in it 
great fever is accompanied by profuse discharge ; from rheumatic pleu- 
risy and pleurodynia, by the history in these of repeated attacks and 
great temporary pain ; from surgical fever by the absence of cause. 

Prognosis. — The prognosis is usually favorable. This disease entails 
only the loss of ten days to three weeks' use of the animal, and leaves 
the subject with no complicating sequelae. In some cases I have seen 
the irritable disposition remain for a length of time, but in every case 
it has finally disappeared. As I have suggested, violent spasms might 
prove fatal. Pleurisy would render the prognosis serious, as the same 
disease would when occurring from simple causes. 

Treatment. — The treatment of a stable should be at once prophylactic. 
The infected animals should be removed, and complete disinfection of 
the stalls and area should be made. The individual treatment is sim- 
ple. The hygienic measures of cleanliness, fresh air without drafts, 
frequent rubbing and tempting food should be thorough. The diges- 
tive tract is to be regulated by small doses of bicarbonate of soda, 
sulphate of soda, gentian and tannic acid. The appetite is to be stimu- 
lated by drinks of cold breakfast tea and cow's milk. Antispasmodics 
are to be used when the cough is excessive. The best of these are 
camphor, belladonna, stramonium, and steaming with turpentine. (Tur- 
pentine 1 ounce, water half bucket.) External frictions of alcohol and 
turpentine, with hot packs to the loins, will also afford relief. Quinine 
and salicylic acid may be used during the elevation of temperature. 
Professor Dieckerhoff recommends tracheal injections in ounce doses of 



500 

the following solution: Acetate of aluminium, 1 per cent.; alum, one- 
half to 1 per cent.; bromide of potash, 1 to 2 per cent.; water, 100. 

(EDEMATOUS PNEUMONIA. 

Synonyms: Adynamic pneumonia; hospital or stable pneumonia; 
influenza ; Pectoralis equorum; pleuropneumonia; Contagiosa equorum; 
Brustseuche, German. 

Definition. — This disease is the adynamic pneumonia of the older vet- 
erinarians who did not recognize any essential difference in its nature 
from an ordinary inflammation of the lungs, except in the profound 
sedation of the force of the animal affected with it, which is a promi- 
nent symptom from the outset of the disease. Again, this same pros- 
tration of the vital force of the animal, combined with the staggering 
movement and want of coordination of the muscles of the animal, 
caused it for a long time to be confounded with influenza, with which 
at certain periods it certainly has a strong analogy of symptoms, but 
from which, as from sporadic pneumonia, it can be separated very read- 
ily if a case can be followed throughout its whole course. 

(Edematous pneumonia is a specific inflammation of the lungs, pro- 
ducing an interstitial oedema and inflammation of the tissues of these 
organs, and a constitutional disturbance or fever of a low or adynamic 
type. It causes a profound sedation of the nervous system which may 
be so great as to cause death. It is sometimes attended by pleurisy, 
inflammation of the heart, or septic complications which also prove 
fatal. 

Etiology. — While, as an infectious disease, its original cause is due to 
a specific virus, there are many predisposing causes which act as impor- 
tant factors in aiding in its development. Old horses, especially those 
which have been rendered anaemic or debilitated by hard use or by di- 
minished quantities of food, and those which are obliged to work con- 
stantly in water or are exposed to continual cold and wet, as in the case 
of canal horses, old hack horses and their congeners, and those younger 
animals which have a sudden weakened vitality produced by being put 
too rapidly to work, or to too hard work before their muscles are har- 
dened and their organs have been accustomed to the unusual demands 
placed upon them by want of training, are much more susceptible to 
the contagion than adult animals in a good condition of health. Lym- 
phatic, narrow-chested, thick-hided and big-hoofed animals will contract 
the disease much more easily than the finer- skinned, richer-muscled 
animal of a sanguinary temperament and robust constitution. 

Old, cold, damp, foul, unclean, and badly drained and ventilated stables 
allow rapid dissemination of the disease to other horses in the same 
stable, and act as rich reservoirs for preserving the contagion which, 
in one of these cases, the writer knew to be retained for over a year. 
Every few weeks during this time, in the corner of a large livery stable, 
pne or more cases of ©edematous pneumonia broke out, usually in one of 



501 

two stalls, but sometimes several stables away. When the stable was 
remodeled and new woodwork was placed in for mangers and floors the 
disease disappeared. The virus is but moderately volatile, and in a 
stable seems rather to follow the lines of the walls and irregular courses 
than the direct currents of air and the tracts of ventilation. Professor 
Dieckerhoff found that the contagion of influenza was readily diffusi- 
ble throughout an entire stable and through any opening to other build- 
ings, and substantiates the writer's experience that it will pass through 
solid walls of considerable thickness ; but he also found that the con- 
tagion of cedemateous pneumonia is not transmissible at any great dis- 
tance, nor is it very diffusible in the atmosphere. A brick wall 8 feet in 
height served to prevent the infection of other animals placed on that 
side of a horse ill with the disease, while others placed on the opposite 
side and separated from the focus of contagion only by open bars in 
the stall, were infected and developed the disease in its typical form. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms differ slightly from those of a frank, fibri- 
nous pneumonia, but not so much by the introduction of new symptoms 
as by the want of or absence of the distinct evidences of local lesions 
which are found in the latter disease. All of the pneumonias through- 
out the whole course of the trouble are less marked and less clearly 
defined. 

At first the symptoms are latent; the animal gives a rare cough 
which resembles that of a heavy horse affected with a slight chronic 
bronchitis ; it becomes somewhat dejected and dull, at times somnolent, 
and has a diminished appetite. This condition lasts for several days. 
No history can be obtained of causes for symptoms of acute trouble, 
and the absence of organic lesions to account for the general condition 
leaves the attendant, however expert he may be, in much doubt as to 
the nature of the trouble unless previous cases in the same stable, or 
special tact on the part of the veterinarian, aids in foreseeing the prob- 
able termination of the slight local trouble and commencing adynamic 
changes in the organic functions of the animal. No crepitant rale is 
heard as in fibrinous pneumonia, as in this disease the local trouble 
commences in the neighborhood of the large air tubes and not on the 
periphery of the lungs. During several days these symptoms increase 
and a fever of a low type gradually develops. The respiration in- 
creases to twenty-four, thirty, or thirty-six to the minute, and a small, 
running, soft pulse, indicating great exhaustion of the capillaries and 
their surrounding tissues, attains a rhythm of fifty, seventy, or even more 
beats in the sixty seconds. The heart, however, contrary to the debil- 
itated condition of the pulse, is found beating violently and tumult- 
ously, like it does in anthrax and septic intoxication. The mucous 
membranes of the eyes and mouth and of the genital organs are found 
somewhat cedematous, and they rapidly assume a dirty, saffron color, 
at times approaching an ocher, but distinguishable from the similar 
coloration in influenza by the want of the luster belonging to the latter 



502 

and "by the muddy, dull tint which is characteristic throughout the dis- 
ease. 

Suddenly, without the preliminary rales which precede grave lesion 
of the lungs in other diseases, the biowing murmur of pueumonia is 
heard over a variable area of the chest, usually, however, much more 
distinctly over the trachea at the base of the neck and directly behind 
the shoulder on either side of the chest. In some cases the evidence 
of lung lesion can only be detected over the trachea. The body tem- 
perature has now reached 104°, 105°, F. or in extreme cases even a de- 
gree higher. The debility of the animal is great without the stupefac- 
tion or evidence of cerebral trouble, which is constant with such grave 
constitutional phenomena in influenza or severe pneumonias. The ani- 
mal is subject to occasional chills, and on movement staggers in its gait. 
The yellow coloration of the visible mucous membrane is rendered pale 
by infiltration of the liquid of the blood into the tissues; the pulse may 
become so soft as to be almost imperceptible, the heart movement and 
sounds being at the same time exaggerated. The animal loses flesh 
rapidly, and dropsies of the extremities, of the under surface of the 
belly, or of the internal organs may show themselves. We then have 
all the general phenomena of a profound anaemia. 

Terminations. — These symptoms may gradually subside; with an 
improved appetite the inanition may cease and the animal com- 
mence to nourish its impoverished blood and tissues; the pulse be- 
comes stronger, the heart more regular and less tumultuous; the mu- 
cous membranes assume a brighter and more distinct color; the diffi- 
culty of respiration is removed, and the animal may make a recovery, 
but at best the convalescence is a long one, and in many cases it is 
questionable if it is an economical proceeding to carry the animal 
through it. More frequently the disease terminates by death. This is 
usually directly due to heart failure; in some cases it is caused by 
asphyxia, owing to the great amount of exudation into the lung tissue, 
rendering its further function impossible; in most cases the anaemia 
and marasmus debilitate the animal until it dies as it would from the 
same condition produced by any other cause. 

Complications. — The complications of cedematous pneumonia are in- 
flammatory or necrotic changes in the lungs themselves. Suppuration 
at times takes place in the bronchi and may extend to the lung tissue. 
In this case we may find the mucous rales of a bronchitis appearing 
where there were only negative signs of pulmonary trouble, or we may 
find them grafted upon the tubular murmur of the pneumonia if the 
latter had been detected in the earlier stages of the disease. These are 
mostly distinctly heard over the trachea and on the sides of the chest 
directly behind the shoulders. With the development of the mucous 
rales, to be heard on auscultation, we have a more purulent discharge 
from the nostrils, similar to that of a chronic or sub-acute bronchitis. 
If the inflammation has been of some standing, cavernous rales may be 



T 503 

heard indicating the destruction of a considerable portion of lung tis- 
sue and the formation of a cavity. The effects of this more acute inflam- 
matory process are not appreciable in the general condition of the ani- 
mal, except to still further weaken it and add to its debilitated and ema- 
ciated cachexia. Gangrene frequently occurs. A sudden rise of the 
body temperature one or two degrees, with a more enfeebled pulse and 
a still more tumultuous heart, develop simultaneously with the appear- 
ance of a discharge from the nostrils. This discharge is gray in color, 
serous or watery in consistency, mixed with the detritus of broken- 
down lung tissue, and sometimes contains clots of blood, or in more 
serious cases may be marked by a quantity of fluid blood from a hem- 
orrhage, which proves fatal. The discharge is fetid to the smell. The 
animal emaciates rapidly. On examination of the lungs mucous rales 
are heard in the larger bronchi, cavities may be found at any part of 
these organs, and points of lobular pneumonia may be detected. 

Diagnosis.— The diagnosis of cedematous pneumonia at the outset is 
aided greatly by a rigid examination of the surroundings, and still 
more so by the history or knowledge of previous cases in the same sta- 
ble. The cough and commencing fever of the first few days have noth- 
ing diagnostic in them, but when combined with repeated chills, a soft 
pulse, a tumultuous heart, the rapidly stained dull yellow mucous mem- 
branes, and the staggering gait of the animal without marked brain 
trouble, the diagnosis becomes more easy. In pneumonia the fever is 
always of a more sthenic character, the fever is concomitant, or pre- 
cedes the marked lung trouble; the yellowish discoloration is a phe- 
nomenon of the later stages of the disease; the debility of the muscles 
is simple weakness, or, if complicated by want of coordination, it ac- 
companies an evident brain trouble and loss of consciousness. In pueu- 
monia there has always been in the lungs the regular series of absence 
of vesicular murmur, crepitant rales, and then tubular murmur. While 
the pulse in a simple pneumonia may in the later stages become very soft 
and weak, it commences as a teuse and full one. The heart only becomes 
irregular as the result of cardial complication, and never assumes the 
tumultuous character of the septic diseases unless gangrene occurs, in 
which case the animal is only of value as a scientific study to the vet- 
erinary attendant. In influenza the symptoms of fever develop before 
any local lesions are noticed. The feebleness of the muscles and want 
of coordination are from the outset the evident result of a poisoned 
condition of the brain, as shown by the stupor of the animal ; the saf- 
fron or ochre coloration of the visible mucous membrane is of a decided 
tint, and while these membranes may be cedematous, they become so as 
the result of an increase in the quantity of blood in their capillaries, or 
by congestion, and not from the cedematous infiltration of the watery 
portion of the blood as in the disease in question. 

Prognosis. — (Edematous pneumonia is an excessively fatal disease. 
We have seen that it usually attacks animals which are already in more 



504 

or less of a depraved condition or weakened in their vital forces by the 
bad hygienic surroundings to which they have been subjected. Rapid 
increase in the area of infiltration in the lungs, as shown by dullness on 
percussion and the extent of the tubular murmur, is an unfavorable 
symptom. Increased prostration in the early part of the disease augurs 
badly for the chances of future resistance to the effects of the local 
lesions. Suppuration with the formation of abscesses and gangrene in 
the lungs are even more serious in this disease than as a complication 
of other diseases, on account of the debilitating character of the original 
trouble. 

Alterations. — At the time of death from cedematous pneumonia we 
frequently find septic changes and the evidences of putrefaction. The 
solidification of the lung tissue is found irregular in shape and high up 
around the root of the lungs and around the large bronchi, and is gen- 
erally covered by sound lung tissue. The anterior lobes of the lungs 
are usually entirely affected. The diseased portion appears of a gray- 
yellowish color, somewhat watery, and tears readily. Matter is found 
in the air tubes which form gutters through the jelly-like mass of the 
diseased lung. Abscesses, from the size of a nut to larger masses, may 
be found disseminated through the lungs. The blood is dark in color, 
fluid, or only clotted into soft, jelly-like masses. Masses of gangrenous 
or dead black tissue may be present. 

Treatment. — A study of the symptoms will indicate at once that the 
antiphlogistics, or those remedies which we employ in such sthenic dis- 
eases as fibrinous pneumonia, strangles, etc., are not to be employed in 
this disease. Bleeding would only still further weaken an already en- 
feebled animal ; antimony or the alterants would increase the depression 
of a too depraved constitution. There is in this disease no acute con- 
gestion of a particular organ to draw off by depletive measures, nor 
any violent blood current to be retarded, for fear of hyper-nutrition of 
any special part. 

Revulsives do good, as they excite the nervous system and awaken 
the torpur of the weakened blood vessels, which aid in the reestablish- 
ment of the functions. Mustard poultices may be applied over the belly 
and sides of the chest, as in other diseases, but caution must be used in 
the employment of blisters, as ugly ulcers may result from their action 
on a tissue of weakened vitality. Setons are dangerous from the great 
tendency in this disease to septic complications. Repeated friction of 
the legs by hand-rubbing and warmth by bandaging and by rubbing 
the surface of the body with turpentine and alcohol, which is imme- 
diately to be dried by rough towels, will excite the circulation and 
stimulate the emunctories of the skin. 

Stimulants are given internally from the outset of the disease. Tur- 
pentine in dram doses regulates the heart and excites the kidneys to 
carry off waste matter, but if repeated too frequently may disturb the 
already delicate digestive system. Alcohol rectifies the latter danger, 






505 

and is a useful stimulant to the heart and digestive system, if given 
with care in small doses. It must be remembered that this remedy is 
not a food. It is a hydrocarbon which is not burnt, but is eliminated 
in the urine and in the expired air. If given in too large quantities it 
becomes a depressant, and lowers the vitality of all of the tissues of the 
body, as can too frequently be seen in the mental and physical condi- 
tion of the drunkard. It is an antiputrid, and is especially indicated when 
septic complications and gangrene are present. The aromatics and bit- 
ter tonics are useful; gentian, tannin, and English breakfast tea in 
warm decoction from a useful menstruum for other remedies. The vari- 
ous preparations of iron are astringents and excitants to the digestive 
system. Carbolic acid is an antiputrid, which is of marked benefit in 
cedematous pneumonia; it should be given in small doses diluted in 
alcohol. 

Salicylic acid may be given in 1 or 2 dram doses every few hours. It 
is a specific for troubles of the serous membranes, lowers the tempera- 
ture, and is of value in this disease in preventing the exudation into 
the tissue of the lungs. The alkalines, as the sulphate and bicarbonate 
of soda, the nitrate of potash, and very small doses of the iodide of pot- 
ash should be employed to regulate the digestive tract, the kidneys, 
and the other excreting glands, and to stimulate absorption of the waste 
matter. 

The diet demands the strictest attention from the outset. In many 
of the fevers the food has to be diminished in quantity and regulated in 
the quality of its heat-producing components during the acute part of 
the disease, so as to lessen the material for combustion in the inflamed 
organs. In cedematous pneumonia, on the contrary, all the food that 
can possibly be digested and assimilated must be given. Choice must 
be made of the richest material which can be handled by the weakened 
stomach and intestines without fatiguing them. Good, sound hay 
should be chopped short and dampened or partly boiled ; in the latter 
case the hay tea can be reserved to use as a drink. Oats may be pre- 
ferred dry or in other cases will be taken better scalded ; in most cases, 
however, it is better to give slops of oatmeal, to which can be added a 
little bran, barley flour, or boiled milk and wheat flour. Pure cow's 
milk, not too rich in fatty matter, can be given alone or with beaten 
eggs ; frequently the horse will have to be coaxed with the milk diluted 
with several parts of water at first, but will soon learn to drink the pure 
milk. Apples and carrots cut up raw or boiled are useful, and fresh 
clover in small quantities will frequently stimulate the appetite. 
Throughout the course of the disease and during convalescence the 
greatest attention must be taken to cleaning the coat thoroughly so as 
to keep the glands of the skin in working order, and light, warm cov- 
ering must be used to protect the animal from cold or draughts of air. 



506 

HORSEPOX — EQUINE VARIOLA. 

Synonyms: Variola equina — Pustular Grease— Phlyctenoid Herpes. 

Definition. — The horsepox is a specific infectious fever of the horse 
attended by an eruption of pustules or pocks over any part of the skin 
or on the mucous membranes lining the various cavities in the body. 
When the eruption takes place on the mucous membrane of the re- 
spiratory tract it produces an irritation and discharge of matter which 
greatly resembles that of strangles. This disease was for a long time 
confounded with the latter disease, and there is no doubt that many 
light cases in which the eruption is not well marked are still mistaken 
for distemper. 

The horsepox was described by the early Roman agricultural writers 
and by the veterinarians of the last century. It received its first im- 
portant notice from the great Jeuner, who confounded it with grease in 
horses, as animals with this disease are very apt to have the eruption 
of variola appear on the inflamed fetlocks if they are affected with 
grease at the same time. He saw these cases transmit the disease to 
cattle in the byres and to the stablemen and milkmaids who attended 
them, and furnish the latter with immunity from smallpox, which led 
to the discovery of vaccination. The horsepox is again frequently 
mistaken for the exanthemata attending some forms of venereal diseaso 
in horses. 

Variola in the horse, while it is identical in principle, general course, 
complications, and lesions with variola in other animals, is a disease of 
the horse itself, and is not transmissible in the form of variola to any 
other animal; nor is the variola of any other animal transmissible to 
the horse. Cattle and men, if inoculated from a case of horsepox, de- 
velop vaccinia, but vaccinia from the latter animals is not so readily 
reiuoculated into the horse with success. If it does develop, it pro- 
duces the original disease. 

Etiology. — The direct cause of the horsepox is infection. A large 
number of predisposing causes favor the development of the disease 
as in the case of strangles, for this trouble, like almost all contagious 
diseases, renders the animal which has had one attack immune from 
future ones. The causes are, youug age, for then the animal is still 
susceptible to contract the disease, but old horses which have not been 
affected are less apt to become infected when exposed than younger 
ones. The exposure incident to shipment through public stables, cars, 
etc., again acts as a predisposing cause as in the other infectious dis- 
eases. The period of final dentition is a moment of the animal's life 
which renders it peculiarly susceptible. 

Dupaul states that the infection is transmissible through the atmos- 
phere for several hundred yards. The more common means of conta- 
gion is by direct contact or by means of fomites. Feed boxes and 
bridles previously used by horses affected with variola are probably the 



T 507 

most frequent carriers of the virus, and we find the lesions in the ma- 
jority of cases developed in the neighborhood of the lips and nostrils. 
Coition is a frequent cause. A stallion suffering from this disease may 
be the cause of a considerable epizootic, as he transmits it to a number 
of brood mares and they in turn return to the farms where they are 
surrounded by young animals to whom they convey the contagion. 
The saddle of the harness and croup straps are frequent agents of in- 
fection. The presence of a wound greatly favors the inoculation of the 
disease, which is also sometimes carried by surgical instruments or 
sponges. Trasbot recites a case, in which a set of hobbles, which had 
been used on an animal suffering from variola, were used on ahorse for 
a quittor operation and transmitted the disease which developed on the 
edges of the wound. There is no elective point for the first development 
of the disease, but it commences most frequently around the natural 
openings, as these are the points which are most exposed to inoculation. 

Symptoms. — There is a period of incubation, after an animal has been 
exposed, of from five to eight days, during which there is no appreciable 
alteration in the health. This period is shorter in summer and longer 
in winter. At the end of this time, small nodes develop at the point of 
inoculation and the animal becomes feverish. The nodes, which feel 
like small shot under the skin, soften into small pustules and break 
into little, shallow, superficial ulcers, exuding a creamy, thick matter, 
which rapidly dries and forms scabs. The horse is dull and dejected, 
loses its appetite, and has a rough dry coat with the hairs on end. 
There is moderate thirst. The respirations are somewhat quickened 
and the pulse becomes rapid and full. The body temperature is ele- 
vated, frequently reaching 104° or 105° F., within thirty- six or forty- 
eight hours from the appearance of the first symptoms. 

The visible mucous membranes, especially the conjunctivae, are of a 
bright rosy red. In the lymphatic, cold-blooded, and more common 
horses these symptoms of fever are less marked; even with a compara- 
tively high temperature the animal may retain its appetite and even 
work comparatively well, but these cases, if worked and overheated, 
are apt to develop serious complications. 

At the end of from three and a half to four days the eruption breaks 
out, the fever abates, and the general symptoms improve. The eruption 
in severe cases may be generalized ; it may be confined to the softer 
skin of the nose and lips, the genital organs, and the inside of the thighs, 
or it may be localized in the neighborhood of a wound or in the irri- 
tated skin of a pair of greasy heels. It consists of a greater or less 
number of little nodes which, on a mucous membrane, as in the nostrils 
or vagina, or on soft unpigmented skin, appear red and feel at first like 
shot under the epidermis. These nodes soften and show a yellowish 
spot in the center when they become pustules. The epidermis is dis- 
solved and the matter escapes as a viscid fluid at first citrine and later 
cloudy and purulent, which dries rapidly, forming scabs ; if these fall 



508 

off or are removed they leave a little shallow concave ulcer which heals 
in the course of five or six days. In the softer skin if pigmented the 
cicatrices are white and frequently remain so for about a year, when 
the pigment returns. The lips or genital organs of a colored horse, if 
covered with a number of small white spots about the size of a pea, will 
usually indicate that the animal has been affected with the horsepox. 

At times the pustules may become confluent and produce large super- 
ficial serpentine ulcers on the membrane of the nostrils, around the 
lips or eyelids, or on the borders of wounds and in greasy heels ; in 
this case the part becomes swollen, hot, painful, and is covered with 
a profuse discharge of matter. In this form there is frequently a sec- 
ondary fever lasting for a day or two. 

In severe cases there may be a suppurative adenitis or inflammation 
of the lymphatic glands which are fed from the affected part. If the 
eruption is around the nostrils aud lips, the glands between the jaws 
(submaxillary) form abscesses, as in a case of strangles ; if the eruption 
is in a pair of greasy heels abscesses may form in the fold of the groin 
(inguinal). There may be so much tumefaction of the nostrils as to 
produce difficulty in breathing. 

Complications. — A case of horsepox may be attended with various 
complications of greater or less importance. Adenitis or suppuration 
of the glands has just been mentioned. Confluent eruptions irritate 
the part and induce the animal to rub the inflamed part against the 
manger or scratch it in other ways, and produce troublesome ulcers, 
which may leave ugly scars. Irritation of the mucous membrane of the 
nose causes severe coryza with purulent discharge. 

The eruption may occur in the throat or in the air tubes to the lungs, 
developing an acute laryngitis or bronchitis. These commence with a 
harsh cough, which becomes moister and more fatty as the discharge 
increases, and is followed for several days by a fever, which is often 
severe. If the larynx is affected it becomes inflamed and swollen, caus- 
ing the animal to roar and discharge quantities of foamy mucous and 
matter from the nostrils, as in troubles of the same organ from other 
causes. If the animal is exposed to cold, or worked so as to engorge 
the lungs with blood at the termination of the specific fever, just when 
the eruption is about to localize, it may be determined to the lungs. In 
this case we have a short dry cough, labored breathing, the develop- 
ment of a secondary fever of some gravity, and all of the external 
symptoms of a pneumonia. This pneumonia differs, however, from an 
ordinary pneumonia in the symptoms furnished by the examination of 
the lungs themselves. In place of a large mass of the lung tissue be- 
ing affected the inflammation is disseminated in smaller spots over the 
entire lung. The total of these areas may be equal, however, to the 
half or more of the lungs and prove fatal. The crepitant rales and 
tubular murmur of pneumonia is absent, and is replaced by sibilant 
and small mucous rales. When the fever has been intense and the 



t 509 

animal is unduly exposed or worked, it may be attacked with a conges- 
tion of the lungs, which will prove fatal within a lew hours, and no 
localization be developed; or, if in this case relief is afforded, it may 
be followed by a lobar pneumonia, showing itself with all the symptoms 
of this disease when it is produced by ordinary causes. 

Diagnosis. — The diagnosis of the horsepox is to be based on the pres- 
ence of a continuous fever, with rosy mucous membranes, for several 
days, and the appearance of the characteristic eruption. If the erup- 
tion is in the nasal cavities, marked by a considerable discharge and at- 
tended by submaxillary abscesses, it may be confounded with strangles. 
If the throat is affected it may be confounded with an angina (laryngitis 
or pharyngitis), but in the latter the local trouble precedes or is concomi- 
tant with the fever, while in the former the fever precedes the local 
trouble by several days. Yariola may be confounded with bronchitis 
or pneumonia if complicated with these troubles and the eruption is 
absent from the exterior, but it is of little moment, as the treatment for 
both will be much the same. When the eruption is in the neighbor- 
hood of the genital organs this disease has been mistaken for the dou- 
rine. In variola the eruption is a temporary one; the nodes and pus- 
tules are followed by shallow ulcers and rapid cicatrization, unless con- 
tinued in the vagina or on the penis by the rubbing of the walls and 
filth which accumulates; there are apt to be pustules at other parts of 
the body. In the venereal disease the local trouble commences as a 
papule and breaks into an ulcer without having formed a pustule. The 
ulcer has not the convex rosy appearance of that of the less serious dis- 
charge; the symptoms last for a longer period, by which time others 
aid in differentiating the two. In glanders the tubercle is hard, and, 
after breaking into an ulcer, the indurated bottom remains, grayish or 
dirty-white in color, ragged and exuding a viscous, oily discharge. 
There is no disposition to suppuration of the neighboring glands. In 
variola the rosy shallow ulcer and healthy laudable pus, with the 
acutely tumified glands, should not be mistaken, at least after a day. 
I have seen acute glanders in mules which required a day's delay to 
differentiate from strangles ; at that time the farcy buds appeared. 

Prognosis. — The average case of the horsepox runs a course of dejec- 
tion, loss of appetite, and more or less fever for about four days, followed 
by a rapid convalescence, and leaves the animal as well and as sound 
as before. If the eruption has been excessive or confluent, the ulcera- 
tions may act as irritants and render the animal unfit for use for several 
weeks. Laryngitis, pharyngitis, bronchitis, and pneumonia in this dis- 
ease are not of greater gravity than they are when occurring from other 
causes. The spots denuded of pigment left by the pustules on the lips 
and genitals may temporarily depreciate the value of the animal to a 
slight degree. 

Treatment. — As this is a disease unattended by alterations of the 
blood itself, although a specific fever, and is of a sthenic type, active 



510 

remedies are admissible and indicated. The horse should be placed on 
alow diet — little or no oats — bran mashes, a moderate quantity of good 
sound hay, a few carrots or apples, which will act as laxatives, and slop 
feed. Barley flour is more cooling for mashes than bran or oat meal. 
Water may be given as the animal desires it, but it should not be cold ; 
if a half bucketful of water is kept in the manger the horse will take 
but a few swallows at a time. Dram doses of nitrate of potash, or 
ounce doses of sweet spirits of niter are useful in the drinking water. 
If the fever is high the antipyretics are indicated: Tincture of aconite 
in fifteen to twenty drop doses ; sulphate of quinine in dram doses ; 
iodide of potash in dram doses ; two or three half-dram doses of tartar 
emetic or Kermes mineral are often useful ; bleeding will often reduce 
the temperature at once and prevent complications, but is sometimes 
the cause of an ugly inflammation surrounded by an eruption in the 
neighborhood of the wound ; infusion of pine tops, of juniper leaves, 
of the aromatic herbs, or of English breakfast tea are useful in the later 
stages. If complications of the air passages or lungs are threatened a 
large mustard poultice should be applied to the belly and sides of the 
chest. Oxide of zinc ointment should be used on confluent eruptions, 
and if the ulceration is excessive it may have to be touched with caustic. 

Great care must be taken to keep the animal protected from cold 
draughts of air or other exposure. Blankets or sheets should be used 
on the body and bandages on the legs. After convalescence is estab- 
lished nutritious food of easy digestion and walking exercise are all 
that is needed, except perhaps a little Glauber's salts, to prevent con- 
stipation. 

Prophylactic treatment. — When the horsepox breaks out amongst a 
large number of horses, especially on a farm where there are a number 
of colts, it may be assumed that the greater majority will contract the 
disease, and it is more economical that they should have it and be 
through with it at once. If the weather is moderate all the animals 
which have not been affected can be inoculated, which will produce the 
disease in a mild form, with the eruption at a point of election, and 
render the danger of complication a minimum one. For inoculation the 
discharge from the pustules of a mild case should be selected and inoc- 
ulated by scarification on the belly or the under surface of the neck. 

ANTHRAX. 

Synonyms. — Sacer ignis, Pustula maligna, Anthrax, Latin ; Gharbon, 
Sang de Bate, French ; Miltzbrand, German ; Carbone, Garbonchio, Fuoco 
de St. Antonio, Italian j Jaswa, SibersMji Jaswa, Bussian ; Carbuncle, 
Splenic Fever, Splenic Apoplexy, Braxy (in sheep), etc. 

Anthrax is a severe and usually fatal contagious disease, charac- 
terized by chills, great depression and stupor of the animal, and a 
profound alteration of the blood, due to destruction of the red blood 
oorpuscles. It is caused by the admission into the animal body of bac- 



511 

teria, or low order of living organisms, or their spores, known as the 
" bacillus of Davaine" or " bacillus anthracis." 

It affects all animals exposed to its contagion. The herbivora are 
especially susceptible iu the following order : the sheep, the ox, and the 
horse. The Guinea pig, the hog, the rabbit, mice, and other animals 
die quickly from its effects. Man, the dog, and other omuivora and 
carnivora may be attacked by it in a constitutional form as fatal as in 
the herbivora, but fortunately, in some cases, develop from it only local 
trouble, followed by recovery. Fowls may be inoculated and develop 
the disease if they are partially immersed in cold water, to reduce their 
natural body temperature from 104° to about 100° F. Frogs may be in- 
oculated successfully if kept in warm water, which will elevate their body 
temperature to one approximating that of the warm-blooded animal, 
9G°-98° F. 

Anthrax has been a scourge of the animals of the civilized world since 
the first written history we have of any of their diseases. It existed in 
Asia Minor at the time of the siege of Troy; it was a plague of the 
cattle of Egypt during the time of Moses. It was a severe pest among 
the agricultural animals in the early Greek and Eoman days, and we 
have very accurate accounts of its symptoms from the writings of 
Columella, Varro, Virgil, and others. By the writers of the Middle 
Ages it was frequently confounded with the rinderpest, but is described 
with sufficient precision to identify outbreaks of it in epizootic form in 
996 A. D. and 1090 A. D. in France j in 1552 at Lucca, Italy j in 1617 
at Naples, where numbers of human beings died from eating the flesh 
of animals which were affected with the disease. 

In 1598 the senate of Venice interdicted the sale of meat, butter, or 
cheese coming from animals affected with anthrax. In 1709-1712 A. 
D. extensive outbreaks of anthrax occurred in Germany, Hungary, and 
Poland. Iu the first half of the present century it had become an ex- 
tensively spread disease in Russia, Holland, and England, and for the 
last century has been gradually spreading in the Americas j more so in 
South America. In 1864, in the five governments of Petersburg, Nov- 
gorod, Olonetz, Twer, and Jaroslaw, in Eusoia, over ten thousand 
horses and nearly one thousand persons perished from the disease. 

The causes of anthrax were for a long time attributed entirely to 
climatic influence, soil, and atmospheric temperature, and they are 
still recognized as most important predisposing factors in the develop- 
ment of the disease, for it is usually found, especially when outbreaks 
over any number of animals occur, in low, damp, marshy countries 
during the warm seasons. It is more frequent in districts where marshy 
lands dry out during the heat of summer and are then covered with 
light rains. Decaying vegetable matter seems most favorable for nour- 
ishing and preserving the virus. 

The direct cause of anthrax is always contagion or infection of a pre- 
viously sound animalj either directly from a diseased animal or through 



512 

various media which contain excretions or the debris from the body of 
a previously infected animal. The specific virus of anthrax was first dis- 
covered by Davaine in 1851. He recognized in the blood of animals suf- 
fering from anthrax microscopic bodies in the form of little rods with 
bright spots at their extremities. It was not, however, till a quarter of a 
century later that Pasteur defined the exact nature of the bacillus, the 
mode of its propagation, and its exact relationship to anthrax as the sole 
cause of the disease. The bacillus of Davaine, or the virus of anthrax, is 
a low organism, in the form of a rod with a bright spot or spore at either 
end, which develops in the blood of an animal, or in other favorable 
media, as chicken broth or meat jellies kept at the temperature of the ani- 
mal body. In the animal body the bacilli have a tendency to be filtered 
from the blood by the tissues of the organs through which the fluid 
passes, and to accumulate in the spleen, liver, and elsewhere, so that 
these organs are much more virulent than the muscles or less vascular 
tissues. When eliminated from the animal in the excretions, or when 
exposed to outside influences by the death of the animal and the disinte- 
gration of the tissues, the body of the rod is destroyed and the spores 
only remain. These spores, which are the germs of the virus, retain 
their vitality for a long period ; they resist ordinary putrefaction ; they 
are unchanged by moisture, and they are not affected by moderate heat. 
If scattered with the debris of a dead animal on the surface of the 
ground, they may remain around the roots of the grass in a pasture, or 
may be washed to the nearest low-lying ground or marsh. If buried in 
the body of an animal dead from anthrax, they may be washed deep in 
the ground, and in later years (in one proven case seventeen years) be 
brought to the surface and infect other animals. They are frequently 
brought to the surface of the earth, having been swallowed by earth- 
worms, in the bodies of which they have been found. 

This accounts for the outbreaks at the time of the first rains after a 
dry season. During the latter the earthworm goes deep in the ground 
in search of moisture ; it finds the spore which has been washed there 
in past years, swallows it, and brings it to the surface, when the rain 
furnishes the moisture which drives the worm itself from its deeper 
home. The virus is carried with the wool from infected sheep and re- 
mains in it through the process of manufacture into cloth. The spores 
remain in the hides of animals which have died of anthrax and retain 
their vitality throughout months of soaking in the tanners' pits, the 
working of the harness-maker or the cobbler and after the oiling of the 
completed leather. The dried spores in the dust from any of these prod- 
ucts may be carried by the atmosphere. 

Infection of an animal takes place through inoculation or contact of 
the bacillus or its spores with an abraded surface or mucous membrane 
on a sound animal. In an infected district horses may eat the rich 
pasturage of spring and early summer with impunity, but when grass 
becomes low they crop it close to the ground, pull up the roots around 



51 3 

which the virus may be lodged, and under these conditions the animals 
are more apt to have abrasions of the lips or tongue by contact with 
dried stubble and the dirt on the roots, which favors the introduction 
of the germs into the system. The virus may be introduced with food 
and enter the blood-vessel system from the stomach and intestines. If 
contained in the dust, dried hay, or on the parched pasture of late sum- 
mer, the virus may be inhaled and be absorbed from the lining of the 
lungs. If contained in harness leather, it needs but an abrasion of the 
skin, as the harness rubs it, to transfer the spore from the leather to 
the circulation of the animal. 

The writer saw a case of anthrax occur in a groom from the use of a 
new horse brush. The strap which passes over the back of the hand 
inoculated an abrasion on the knuckle of the first finger, and in twelve 
hours a " pustule" had formed and the arm had become affected. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms of anthrax develop with extreme rapid- 
ity ; they are frequently so sudden that it appears but a few minutes 
for the animals to have passed from a condition of perfect health to a 
dangerously diseased one. The horse is dejected and falls into a state 
of profound stupor, attended by great muscular weakness. The feeble, 
indolent animal, if forced to move, drags its legs. There are severe 
chills, agitation of the muscles, symptoms of vertigo, and at times colicky 
pains. The mucous membranes*turn a deep ochre or bluish-red color. 
The body temperature is rapidly elevated to 104° and 105° F. The 
breathing is increased to thirty or forty respirations in the minute and 
the pulse is greatly accelerated, but the arteries are soft and almost im- 
perceptible, while the heart-beats can be felt and heard, violent and 
tumultuous. In other words, it resembles a very severe case of in- 
fluenza, except in regard to the heart's action. The symptoms last but 
two, three, or four days, at most, when the case usually terminates 
fatally. An examination of the blood shows a dark fluid which is not 
clot, and which remains black after exposure to the air. After death 
the bodies putrify rapidly and bloat up; the tissues are filled with gases 
and a bloody foam exudes from the mouth, nostrils, and anus, and fre- 
quently the mucous membranes of the rectum protrude from the latter. 
The hairs detach from the skin. Congestion of all the organs and tis- 
sues is found, with interstitial hemorrhages. The muscles are friable 
and are covered with ecchymotic spots. This is specially marked in 
the heart. 

The black, uncoagulated and iucoaguable blood shows an iridescent 
scum on its surface, which is due to the fat of the animal dissolved by 
the ammonia, produced by the decomposed tissues. The serum oozes 
out of every tissue and contains broken-down blood, which, when ex- 
amined microscopically, is found to have the red globules crenatedand 
the leucocytes granular. A high power of the microscope also reveals 
the bacteria in the shape of little rod-like bodies of homogeneous tex- 
ture with their brilliant spores, 
11035 33 



514 

The lymphatic ganglia are increased four, five, six, or ten times their 
natural size, enlarged by the engorgement of blood. The spleen shows 
nodulated black spots containing a muddy blood, which is found teem- 
ing with the virus. The mucous membranes of the intestines are con- 
gested and brown ; the surface of the intestines is in many places de- 
nuded of its lining membrane, showing fissures and hemorrhagic spots. 
The liver has a cooked appearance; the kidneys are congested and 
friable ; the urine is red ; the pleura, lungs, and the meninges are con- 
gested and the bronchi of the lungs contain a bloody foam. 

En resume' : The symptoms are those which are found in any disease 
with a rapidly decomposing blood. 

The treatment of anthrax was entirely useless and ineffectual until 
within a comparatively few years. The curative treatment, for which 
almost every drug in the pharmacopoeia has been used, was without 
avail, except, perhaps, the use of iodine, injected in the circulation in 
as large quantities as could be tolerated by the system. This treatment 
gives good results in the human being, but requires too much personal 
attention to be economical in animals when the disease occurs in epi- 
demic form, although it may be used in the horse when occurring in an 
animal of great value. 

The prophylactic treatment formerly consisted in the avoidance of 
certain fields and marshes which were recognized as contaminated dur- 
ing the months of August and September and had been occupied the 
years in which the outbreaks usually occurred. It underwent, however, 
a revolution after the discovery by Pasteur of the possibility of a pro- 
phylactic inoculation which granted immunity from future attacks of 
the disease equal to that granted by the recovery of an animal from an 
ordinary attack of the disease. 

This treatment consists in an artificial cultivation of the virus of an- 
thrax in broths, jellies, or other media, and iu the treatment of it by 
means of continued exposure to the atmosphere or to a high tempera- 
ture for a certain length of time, which weakens the virus to such an 
extent that it is only capable of producing an ephemeral fever iu the 
animal in which it is inoculated, and which yet has retained a sufficient 
amount of its power to protect the animal from inoculation of a stronger 
virus. The production of this virus, which is carried on in some coun- 
tries at the expense of the government and is furnished at a small cost 
to the farmers in regions where the disease prevails, in this country is 
made only in private laboratories. 

GLANDERS. 

Synonyms : Glanders, Farcy, One form of Nasal Gleet, English ; 
Malleus humidus, Equina nasalis, Equi?ia apostematos, Latin; Rotz, 
BotzJcranMeit, German; Snot, Verroting, Dutch; Moccio, Ciamorro f 
Italian; Muermo, Spanish ; Morve, Farcin, French. 



5 T 15 

Definition.— Let it be understood at the outset that glanders and farcy 
are one and the same disease, differing only in that the first term is 
applied to the disease when the local lesions predominate in the internal 
organs, especially in the lungs and the air tubes ; and that the second 
term is applied to it when the principal manifestation is an outbreak of 
the lesions on the exterior or skin of the animal. The term glanders 
applies to the disease in both forms, while the term farcy is limited to the 
visible appearance of external trouble only; but in the latter case 
internal lesions always exist, although they may not be evident. 

Glanders is a contagious constitutional disease of the genus equus 
(the horse, ass, and mule), readily communicable to man, sheep, goats, 
to dog, the cat, the rabbit, and Guinea pig. It runs a variable course 
until it produces the death of the animal affected with it. It is 
characterized by the formation of neoplasms of connective tissue, or 
tubercles which degenerate into ulcers from which exudes a peculiar 
discharge. It is accompanied by a variable amount of fever according 
to the rapidity of its course. It is subject to various complications of 
the lymphatic glands, of the lungs, of the testicles, of the internal 
organs, and of the subcutaneous connective tissue. 

History. — Glanders is one of the oldest diseases of which we have 
definite knowledge in the history of medicine. Absyrtus, the Greek 
veterinarian in the army of Constantiue the Great, described this dis- 
ease with considerable accuracy and recognized the contagiousness of 
its character. Another Greek veterinarian,. Yegetius Eenatus, who 
lived in the time of Theodosius (381 A. D.), described under the name 
of malleus humidus, a disease of the horse characterized by a nasal dis- 
charge and accompanied by superficial ulcers. He recognized the con- 
tagious properties of the discharge of the external ulcers, and recom- 
mended that all animals sick with the disease should bo separated at 
once with the greatest care from the others, and should be pastured in 
separate fields for fear the other animals should become affected. 

In 1682 Solly sel, the stable master of Louis XIV, published an ac- 
count of glanders and farcy, which he considered closely related to 
each other, although he did not recognize them as identical. He ad- 
mitted the existence of a virus which communicated the disease from 
an infected animal to a sound one. He called special attention to the 
feed-troughs and water-buckets as being the medium of contagion. He 
divided glanders into two forms, one malignant and contagious, and the 
other benign, and he stated that there was always danger of infection. 

Garsault, in. 1746, said " that as this disease is communicated very 
easily, and can infect in a very short time a prodigious number of horses 
by means of the discharges which may be licked up, animals infected 
with glanders should be destroyed." 

Bourgelat, the founder of veterinary schools, in his " Elements of Hip- 
piatary," published in 1755, establishes glanders as a virulent disease. 
Extensive outbreaks of glanders are described as prevailing in the 



516 

great armies of continental Europe and England from time to time dur- 
ing the periods of all the wars of the last few centuries. 

Glanders was imported into America at the close of the last century, 
and before the end of the first half of the present century had spread to 
a considerable degree among the horses of the Middle and immediately 
adjoining Southern States. This disease was unknown in Mexico until 
carried there during the Mexican war by the badly diseased horses of 
the United States Army. During the first half of the present century 
a large school of veterinarians and medical men protested against the 
contagious character of this disease, and prevailed by their opinion to 
such an extent against the common opinion that several of the govern- 
ments of Europe undertook a series of experiments to determiue the 
right between the contesting parties. 

At the veterinary school at Alfort, and at the farm of Lamirault in 
France, several hundred horses which had passed examination as sound 
had placed among them glandered horses under various conditions. 
The results of these experiments proved conclusively the contagious 
character of the disease. 

In 1881 Professor Bouchard, of the faculty of medicine in Paris, as- 
sisted by Drs. Capitau and Charrin, undertook a series of experiments 
with matter taken from the farcy ulcer of a human being. They after- 
ward continued their experimeuts with matter taken from auimals of 
the equine genus. In 18S3 these gentlemen presented the results of 
their researches to the Academy, through Professors Bouley and Vul- 
piam, conclusively demonstrating that the disease was caused by a bacte- 
rium or low order of parasitic organism, which is capable of propagation 
and reproduction of others of its own kind if placed in the proper media. 

When we come to study the etiology of glanders, the difference of sus- 
ceptibility on the part of different species of animals, or even ou the part 
of individuals of the same species, and when we come to find proof of 
the slow incubation and latent character of the disease as it exists in 
certain individuals, we will understand how in a section of country 
containing a number of glandered animals others can seem to contract 
and develop the disease without having apparently been exposed to 
contagion. 

Etiology. — The contagious nature of glanders, in no matter what form 
it appears, being to-day definitely demonstrated, we can recognize but 
one cause for all cases, and that is contagion by means of the specific 
virus of the disease. 

In studying the writings of the older authors on glanders, and the 
works of those authors who contested the contagious nature of the dis- 
ease, we find a large number of predisposing causes assigned as factors 
in the development of the malady. 

While a virus from a case of glanders if inoculated into an animal of 
the genus equus will inevitably produce the disease, we find a vast 
difference in the contagious activity of the products of different cases 



517 

of glanders. "We find a great variation in the manner and rapidity of 
the development of the disease in different individuals, and we find 
that the contagion is much more apt to be carried to sound animals 
under certain circumstances than it is under others. Only certain 
species of animals are susceptible of contracting the disease, and while 
some of these contract it as a general constitutional malady, in others 
it only develops as a local sore. 

In acute glanders the contagion is found in its most virulent form, as 
is shown by the inevitable infection of susceptible animals inoculated 
with the disease, while the discharge from chronic semilatent glanders 
and farcy may at times be inoculated with a negative result ; again, in 
acute glanders, as we have a free discbarge, a much greater quantity 
of virus-containing matter is scattered in the neighborhood of an in- 
fected horse to serve as a contagion to others than is found in the small 
amount of discharge of the chronic cases. 

The chances of contagion are much greater when sound horses, asses, 
or mules are placed in the immediate neighborhood of glandered horses, 
drink from the same bucket, stand in the next stall or work in the same 
wagon, or are fed from the same bales of hay or straw which have 
been impregnated by the saliva and soiled by the discharge of sick ani- 
mals. The contagion must terminate by direct contact of the discharges 
of a glandered animal with the tissues of a sound one, either on the 
exterior or when swallowed mixed with food into the digestive tract. 

Glanders is not infectious in the old acceptation of the word. Renault 
made a large number of experiments, forcing sound horses to breathe the 
expired air of glandered horses for an hour and a half a day for seven 
days, by means of a tube of canvas, and was unable to produce the 
disease in any case. 

The stable attendants serve as one of the most common carriers of 
the virus. Dried or fresh discharges are collected from the infected 
animal in cleaning, harnessing, feeding, and by means of the hands, 
clothing, the teeth of the currycomb, the sponge, the bridle, and halter, 
and are carried to other animals. 

An animal affected with chronic glanders in a latent form is moved 
from one part of the stable to another, or works hitched with one horse 
and then with another, and may be an active agent in the provocation 
of the disease without the cause being recognized. 

Glanders is found frequently in the most insidious forms, and we rec- 
ognize that it can exist without being apparent ; that is, it may affect 
a horse for a long period without showing any symptoms that will allow 
even the most experienced veterinarian to make a diagnosis. An old 
gray mare belonging to a tavern keeper was reserved for family use 
with good care and light work for a period of eight years, during which 
time other horses in the tavern stable were from time to time affected 
with glanders without an apparent cause. The mare, whose only 
trouble was an apparent attack of heaves, was sold to a huckster, who 



518 

placed her at hard work. Want of feed and overwork and exposure 
rapidly developed a case of acute glanders, from which the animal 
died, and at the autopsy were found the lesions of an acute pneumonia 
of glanders grafted on chronic lesions, consisting of old tubercles, which 
had undoubtedly existed for years. 

In a recent case under the care of the writer a coach horse was ex- 
amined for soundness and passed as sound by a prominent veterinarian, 
who a few months afterwards treated the horse for a skin eruption 
from which it recovered. Twelve months afterwards it came into the 
hands of the writer, hidebound, with a slight cough and a slight 
eruption of the skin, which was attributed to clipping and the rubbing 
of the harness, but which had nothing suspicious in its character. The 
horse was placed on tonics and put to regular light driving. In six 
weeks it developed a bronchitis without having been specially exposed, 
and in two days this trouble was followed by a lobular pneumonia and 
the breaking of an abscess in the right lung. Farcy buds developed 
on the surface of the body and the animal died. The autopsy showed 
the existence of a number of old tubercles in the lungs which must 
have existed previous to purchase, more than a year before. 

Public watering troughs and the feed boxes of boarding stables and 
the tavern stables of market towns are among the most common recip- 
ients for the virus of glanders, which is most dangerous in its fresh state, 
but cases have been known to be caused by feeding animals in the box 
or stall in which glandered animals had stood more than a year before. 
While the discharge from a case of chronic glanders is much less apt 
to contain the virus than that from a case of acute glanders, the former, 
if it infects an animal, will produce the same disease as the latter. It 
may assume from the outset an acute or chronic form according to the 
susceptibility of the animal infected, and this does not depend upon the 
character of the disease from which the virus was derived. 

The genus equus, the horse, the ass, and the mule, are the animals 
which are the most susceptible to contract glanders, but in these we 
find a much greater receptivity in the ass and mule than we do in the 
horse. In the ass and mule in almost all cases the period of incubation 
is short and the disease develops in an acute form. We find that the 
race of horse infected influences the character of the disease; in full- 
blooded, fat horses, of a sanguinary temperament, the disease usually 
develops in an acute form, while in the lymphatic, cold-blooded, more 
common race of horses, the disease usually assumes a chronic form. If 
the disease develops first in the chronic form in a horse in fair condition, 
starvation and overwork are apt to bring on an acute attack, but when 
the disease is inoculated into a debilitated and impoverished animal it 
is apt to start in the latent form. Inoculation on the lips or the ex- 
terior of the animal is frequently followed by an acute attack, while in- 
fection by ingestion of the virus and inoculation by means of the diges- 
tive tract is often followed by the trouble iu the chronic latent form. 



510 

In the dog the inoculation of glanders may develop a constitutional 
disease with all the symptoms which are found in the horse, but more 
frequently the virus pullulates only at the point of inoculation, remain- 
ing for some time as a local sore, which may then heal, leaving a per- 
fectly sound animal ; but while the local sore is continuing to ulcerate, 
and specific virus exists in it, it may be the carrier of contagion to other 
animals. In man we find a greater receptivity to glanders than in the 
dog, and in many unfortunate cases the virus spreads from the point 
of inoculation to the entire system and destroys the wretched mortal 
by extensive ulcers of the face and hemorrhage, or by destruction of 
the lung tissue; in other cases, however, most fortunately, glanders 
may develop as in the dog, only in local form, not infecting the consti- 
tution and terminating in recovery, while the specific ulcer by proper 
treatment is turned into a simple one. In the feline species glanders 
is more destructive than in the dog. The point of inoculation ulcerates 
rapidly and the entire system becomes infected. 

While a student the writer saw a lion in the service of Professor 
Trasbot, at Alfort, which had contracted the disease by eating glandered 
meat and died with the lung farcied with tubercles. A litter of kittens 
lapped at the blood from the lungs of a glandered horse on which an 
autopsy was being made, and in four days almost their entire faces, in- 
cluding the nasal bones, were eaten away by rapid ulceration. Tuber- 
cles were found in the lungs. 

A pack of wolves in the Philadelphia Zoological Garden died in ten 
days after being fed with the meat of a glandered horse. The rabbit, 
Guinea pig, and mice are specially susceptible to the inoculation of 
glanders, and the recent discoveries iu regard to this disease have made 
these animals most convenient witnesses and proofs of the existence of 
suspected cases of the glanders in other animals by the results of suc- 
cessful inoculations. 

The sheep and the goat are both capable of developing the disease. 
The goat is more susceptible and frequently develops it by means of 
the digestive tract, from its habit of eating droppings, rags, etc., which 
are found in the neighborhood of the stall. The pig is considered not 
to be susceptible to glanders, and a large number of inoculations, to- 
gether with the feeding of glandered meat to a pen of pigs at the vet- 
erinary school at Alfort, failed to give these animals the disease, but 
Bollinger reports that Gerlach has seen glanders in the pig nine months 
after inoculation. An experiment of Spinola has also produced positive 
results, so that we should consider it dangerous to allow a pig the use 
of glandered meat. 

Horned cattle and barnyard fowls are absolutely exempt from attacks 
of glanders, whether the virus is given to them by the digestive tract 
or inoculated into their tissues. 

The previous reference to the existence of glanders under the two 
forms more commonly differentiated as glanders and as farcy, and our 



520 

reference to the various conditions in which it may exist as acute, 
chronic, and latent, show that the disease may assume several different 
phases. Without losing sight for a moment of the fact that all of these 
varied conditions are identical in their origin and in their essence, for 
convenience of study we may divide glanders into three classes : Chronic 
farcy, chronic glanders, and acute farcy glanders. 

The primary lesions in any form is a local point of eruption in which 
we have a rapid prolifieation of the cell elements which make up the 
animal tissue with formation of new connective tissue, with a crowd- 
ing together of the elements until their own pressure on each other 
cuts off the circulation and nutrition, and death takes place in them in 
the form of ulceration or gangrene. Following this primary lesion we 
have an extension of infection by means of those tissues immediately 
surrounding the first infected spot, which is most suitable for the de- 
velopment of simple inflammatory phenomena or the specific virus. 
The primary symptoms are the result of inoculation developed at the 
point of inoculation, but at a later time the virus is carried by means 
of the blood vessels and lymphatic vessels to other parts of the body 
and becomes lodged at different places and develops m them; again, 
when the disease has existed in the latent form in the lungs of the 
animal and the virus is wakeued into action from any cause, we have 
it carried to various parts of the body and developing in the most 
favorable' localities. The points of development are most frequently 
determined by the activity of the circulation and the effects of exterior 
irritants. For example, if a horse which has been so slightly affected 
with the virus of glanders that no symptoms are visible is exposed to 
cold, rain, or sleet, or by the rubbing of the harness on the body and 
the irritation of mud in the legs, the disease is apt to develop on the 
exterior in the form of farcy, while a full-blooded horse which is em- 
ployed at speed and has its lungs and respiratory tract gorged with 
blood from the extreme use of these organs will develop glanders as 
the local manifestation of the disease in the respiratory tract. 

Chronic farcy. — In farcy the symptoms commence by formation of 
little nodes on the under surface of the skin, which rapidly infringe on 
the tissues of the skin itself. These nodes, which are known as farcy 
"buds" and farcy "buttons," are from the size of a bullet to the size 
of a walnut. They are hot, sensitive to the touch, at first elastic and 
afterwards become soft; the tissue is destroyed, and infringing on the 
substance of the skin the disease produces an ulcer, which is known as 
a chancre. This ulcer is irregular in shape, with ragged edges which 
overhang the sore; it has a gray, dirty bottom and the discharge is 
sometimes thin and sometimes purulent ; in either case it is mixed with 
a viscous, sticky, yellowish material like the white of an egg in con- 
sistency, and like olive oil in appearance. The discharge is almost diag- 
nostic: it resembles somewhat the discharge which we have in greasy 
heels and in certain attacks of lymphangitis, but to the expert the 



521 

specific discharge is characteristic. The discharge accumulates on the 
hair surrounding the ulcer and over its surface and dries, forming 
scabs which become thicker by successive deposits on the undersurface 
until they fall off, to be replaced by others of the same kind; and the 
excess of discharge may drop on the hairs below and form similar 
brownish yellow crusts. The farcy ulcers may retain their specific form 
for a considerable time — days or even weeks; but eventually the dis- 
charge becomes purulent in character and assumes the appearance of 
healthy matter. The surface of the gangrenous bottom of the ulcer is 
replaced by rosy granulations, the ragged edges beveled off, and the 
chancre is turned into a simple ulcer which rapidly heals. 

The farcy buttons occur most frequently on the sides of the lips, the 
sides of the neck, the lower part of the shoulders, the inside of the 
thighs, or the outside of the legs, but may occur at any part of the body. 

We have nest an irritation of the lymphatic vessels in the neighbor- 
hood of the chancres. These become swollen and then indurated and 
appear like great ridges underneath the skin ; they are hot to the touch 
and sensitive. The cords may remain for a considerable time and then 
gradually disappear, or they may ulcerate like a farcy bud itself, form- 
ing elongated, irregular, serpentine ulcers with a characteristic, dirty, 
gray bottom and ragged edges, and pour out a viscous oily discharge 
like the chancres themselves. 

The essential symptoms of farcy are the above; the button, the chan- 
cre, the cord, and the discharge. We have in addition to these symp- 
toms a certain number of accessory symptoms, which, while not diag- 
nostic in themselves, are of great service in aiding the diagnosis in cases 
where the eruption takes place in small quantities, and when the ulcers 
are not characteristic. 

Epistaxis, or bleeding from the nose without previous work or other 
apparent cause, is one of the frequent concomitant symptoms in glan- 
ders, and such a hemorrhage from the nostrils should always be regarded 
with suspicion. The animal with farcy frequently develops a cough, 
resembling much that which we find in heaves — a short, dry, aborted, 
hacking cough, with little or no discharge from the nostrils. With this 
we find an irregular movement of the flanks, and on auscultation of the 
lungs we find sibilant or at times a few mucous rales. Another com- 
mon symptom is a sudden swelling of one of the hind legs; it is suddenly 
found swollen in the region of the cannon, the enlargement extending 
below to the pastern and above as high as the stifle. This swelling is 
hot and painful to the touch, and renders the animal stiff aud lame. 
On pressure with the finger the swelling can be indented, but the pits 
so formed soon fill up again on removal of the pressure. In severe 
cases we may have ulceration of the skin, and serum pours out from the 
surface, resembling the oozing which we have after a blister or in a 
case of grease. This swelling is not to be confounded with the stock- 
ing in lymphatic horses, or the oedema which we have in chronic heart 



522 

or in kidney trouble, as in the last tbe swelling is cool and not painful 
and the pitting on pressure remains for some time after the latter is 
withdrawn. It is not to be confounded with greasy heels. In these the 
disease commences in the neighborhood of the pastern and gradually 
extends up the leg, rarely passing beyond the neighborhood of the 
hock. The swollen leg in glanders almost invariably swells for the en- 
tire length in a single night, or within a very short period. When 
greasy heels are complicated by lymphangitis we have a condition 
very much resembling that of farcy. The swelled leg in farcy is fre- 
quently followed by an outbreak of farcy buttons and ulcers over its 
surface. In the entire horse the testicles are frequently swollen, hot 
and sensitive to the touch, but they have no tendency to suppuration. 
The acute inflammation is rapidly followed by the specific induration, 
which corresponds to the local lesions in other parts of the body. 

Chronic farcy in the ass and mule is an excessively rare condition, 
but sometimes occurs. 

Chronic glanders. — In chronic glanders we have the same train of 
inflammatory phenomena, varying in appearance from those of chronic 
farcy only by the difference of the tissues in which they are located. 
In chronic glanders we have first the tubercle, which is a small node 
from the size of a shot to that of a small pea, which forms in the mucous 
membranes of the respiratory tract. This may be just inside of the wings 
of the nostrils or on the septum which divides the one nasal cavity 
from the other and be easily detected, or they may be higher in the 
nasal cavities on the turbinated bones, or they may form in the larynx 
itself, or on the surface of the trachea or deep in the lungs. 

The tubercles, which are first red and hard and consist of new connect- 
ive tissue, soon soften and become yellow ; the yellow spots break and 
we have a small ulcer the size of the preceding tubercle, which has a 
gray, dirty bottom and ragged edges and is known as a chancre. This 
ulcer pours from its surface a viscous, oily discharge similar to that 
which we have seen in the farcy ulcer. The irritation of the discharge 
may ulcerate the lining mucous membrane of the nose, causing serpen- 
tine gutters with bottoms resembling those of the chancres themselves. 
If the tubercles have formed in large numbers we may have them causing 
an acute inflammation of the Schneiderian membrane, with a catarrhal 
discharge which may mark the specific discharge, or that which comes 
from the ulcers and resembles the discharge of strangles or simple in- 
flammatory diseases. 

The eruption of the ulcers and discharge soon cause an irritation of 
the neighboring lymphatics; and in the intermaxillary space, deep inside 
of the jaws, we find an enlargement of the glands, which for the first 
few days may seem soft and cedematous, but which rapidly becomes 
confined to the glands, these being from the size of an almond to that of a 
small bunch of berries, exceedingly hard and nodulated. This enlarge- 
ment of the glands is found high up on the inside of the jaws, firmly 



523 

adherent to the base of the tongue. It is not to be confounded with the 
swelling - , puffy, (edematous, and not to be separated from the skin and 
subcutaneous connective tissues, which we find in strangles, in laryn- 
gitis, and in other simple inflammatory troubles. 

These glands bear a great resemblance to the hard, indurated glands 
which we find in connection with the collection of pus in the sinuses ; 
but in the latter disease the glands have not the nodulated feel which 
they have in glanders. With the glands we find indurated cords, feel- 
ing like balls of tangled wire or twine, fastening the glands together. 
The essential symptoms of glanders are the tubercle, the chancre, the 
glands, and the discharge. With the development of the tubercles on 
the respiratory tract, according to their number and the amount of 
eruption which they cause, we may have a cough which resembles 
that of a coryza, a laryngitis, a bronchitis, or a broncho-pneumonia, 
according to the location of the lesions. In chronic glanders we have 
the same accessory symptoms which we have in chronic farcy, the hem- 
orrhage of the nose, the swelling of the legs, the chronic cough, and in 
the entire horse the swelling of the testicles. 

On healing, the chancres on the mucous membranes leave small, 
whitish, star-shaped scars, hard and indurated to the touch, and which 
remain for almost an indefinite time. The chancres heal and the other 
local symptoms disappear, with the exception of the enlargement of 
the glands, and we find these so diminished in size that they are scarcely 
perceptible on examination. During the subacute attacks, with a mini- 
mum quantity of local troubles, in chronic glanders and in chronic farcy 
the animal rarely shows any amount of fever, but does have a general 
depraved appearance; it loses flesh and becomes hide bound; the skin 
becomes dry and the hairs stand on end. There is a cachexia, however, 
which resembles greatly that of any chronic, organic trouble, but is not 
diagnostic, although it has in it certain appearances and conditions 
which often render the animal suspicious to the eye of the expert veterin- 
arian, while without the presence of local lesions he would be unable to 
state on what he has based his opinion. 

Acute glanders. — In the acute form of glanders we have the symptoms 
which we have just studied in chronic farcy and in chronic glanders in 
a more acute and aggravated form. We have a rapid outbreak of 
tubercles in the respiratory tract which rapidly degenerate into chan- 
cres and pour out a considerable discharge from the nostrils. We have 
a cough of more or less severity according to the amount and site of 
the local eruption. We have over the surface of the body swellings 
which are rapidly followed by farcy buttons, which break into ulcers; 
we have the indurated cords and enlargement of the lymphatics. 

Bleeding from the nose, sudden swelling of one of the hind legs, and 
the swelling of the testicles are apt to precede an acute eruption of 
glanders. As the symptoms become more marked the animal has diffi- 
culty of respiration, the flanks heave, the respiration becomes rapid, 



524 

the pulse becomes quickened, and the temperature becomes elevated to 
103°, 104°, or 105° P. 

With the other symptoms of au acute fever the general appearance 
and station of the animal is that of one suffering from an acute pneu- 
monia, but upon examination, while we may find sibilant and mucous 
rales over the side of the chest, and may possibly hear tubular murmurs 
at the base of the neck over the trachea, we fail to find the tubular 
murmur or the large area of dullness on percussion over the sides of the 
chest which belongs to simple pneumonia. 

The post-mortem examination of the lungs shows that the pneumonia 
of glanders is a lobular, V-shaped pneumonia scattered through the 
lungs and caused by the specific inflammatory process taking place at 
the divergence of the smaller air tubes of the lungs. In some cases of 
acute glanders the formation of tubercles may so irritate the mucous 
membrane of the respiratory tract and cause such a profuse discharge 
of nmco-purulent, or purulent matter that the specific character of the 
original discharge is entirely masked. In this case, too, the submaxil- 
lary space may for a few days so swell as to resemble the cedernatous 
inflamed glands of strangles, equine variola, or laryngitis. This condi- 
tion is especially apt to bo marked in an acute outbreak of glanders in 
a drove of mules. 

Cases of chronic farcy and glanders, if not destroyed, may live in a 
depraved condition until the animal dies from general emaciation and 
anaemia, but in the majority of cases, from some sudden exposure to 
cold, it develops an acute pneumonia or other simple inflammatory 
trouble which starts up the latent disease and the animal has acute 
glanders. 

In the ass, mule, and plethoric horses, acute glanders usually termi- 
nates by lobular pneumonia. In other cases the general symptoms 
may subside. The symptoms of pneumonia gradually disappear, the 
temperature lowers, the pulse becomes slower, the ulcers heal, leaving 
small indurated cicatrices, and the animal may return to apparent 
health, or may at least be able to do a small amount of work with but 
a few symptoms of the disease remaining in a chronic form. During 
the attack of acute glanders the inflammation of the nasal cavities fre- 
quently spreads into the sinuses or air cells, which are found in the 
forehead and in front of the eyes on either side of the face, and cause 
abscesses of these cavities, which may remain as the only visible symp- 
tom of the disease. An animal which has recovered from a case of 
acute glanders, like the animals which are affected by chronic glanders 
and chronic farcy, are apt to be affected with emphysema of the lungs 
or the heaves, and to have a chronic cough. In this condition they 
may continue for a long period, serving as dangerous sources of conta- 
gion, the more so because the slight amount of discharge does not 
serve as a warning to the owner or driver as profuse discharge does in 
the more acute cases. 



5?5 

With good care, good food, and good surroundings and little work, 
an animal affected with glanders may live for months or even years in 
an apparent state of perfect health, but with the first deprivation of 
food, with a few days of severe hard work, with exposure to cold or with 
the attack of a simple fever or inflammatory trouble from other causes, 
the latent seeds of the disease break out and develop the trouble again 
in an acute form. 

At the post-mortem examination of an animal which has been de- 
stroyed or has died of glauders we find evidences of the various lesious 
which we have studied in the symptoms. In addition to this, we find 
tubercles similar to those which we have seen on the exterior through- 
out the various organs of the body. Tubercles may be found in the 
liver, in the spleen, and in the kidneys. We may have inflammation of 
the periosteum of the boues, and we have excessive alterations in the 
marrow in the interior of the bones themselves. Both of these con- 
ditions during the life of the animal may have been the cause of the 
lamenesses which were difficult to diagnose. 

In one case which came under the observation of the writer, a lame 
horse was destroyed and found to have a large abscess of the bone of 
the arm, with old tubercles of the lungs. When an animal has died im- 
mediately after an attack of a primary acute case of glanders, we find 
small V-shaped spots of acute pneumonia in the lungs. If the animal 
has made an apparent recovery from acute glanders, and in cases of 
chronic farcy and chronic glanders no matter how few the external and 
visible symptoms may have been, there is a deposit of tubercles — 
small, hard, indurated nodes of new connective tissue to be found in the 
lungs. When these have existed for some time we may find a deposit 
of lime salts in them. These indurated tubercles retain the virus and 
their power to give out contagion for almost an indefinite time, and pre- 
dispose to the causes which we have studied as the common factors in 
developing a chronic case into an acute case ; that is, an inflammatory 
process wakens up their vitality and produces a reinfection of the en- 
tire animal. The blood of an animal suffering from chronic glauders 
and farcy is not virulent and is unaltered, but during the attack of 
acute glanders, while the animal has fever, the blood becomes virulent 
and remains so for a few days. 

Treatment. — Fully the entire list of drugs in the pharmacopoeia have 
been tested in the treatment of glanders. Good hygienic surrouudiugs, 
good food, with alteratives and tonics, frequently ameliorate the symp- 
toms and often do so to such an extent that the animal would pass the 
examination of any expert as a perfectly sound animal. But while in 
this case the number of tubercles of the lungs, which are invariably 
there, may be so few as not so cause sufficient disturbance in the respi- 
ration as to attract the attention of the examiner, they exist, and will 
remain there almost indefinitely with the constant possibility of a return 
of acute symptoms. 



526 

In several celebrated cases horses which have been affected with 
glanders have been known to work for years and die from other causes 
without ever having had the return of symptoms; but, allowing that 
these cases may occur, they are so few and far between, and the danger 
of infection of glanders to other horses and to the stable attendants is 
so great, that no animal which has once been affected with the disease 
should be allowed to live. 

In all civilized countries, with the exception of some of the States 
in the United States, the laws are most stringent regarding the prompt 
declaration on the part of the owner and attending veterinarian at the 
first suspicion of a case of glanders, and they allow a liberal indemnity 
for the animal. When this is done, in all cases the animal is destroyed 
and the articles with which it has been in contact are thorough!}- dis- 
infected. When the attendants have attempted to hide the presence 
of the disease in a community, punishment is meted to the owner, at- 
tending veterinarian, or other responsible parties. Several States have 
passed excellent laws in regard to glanders, but with few exceptions 
these laws are not carried out with the rigidity with which they should 
be. In other States where an indemnity is allowed on declaration on 
the part of the owner, the appraisement of the animal is not fairly made. 
If the owners of infected animals are to be encouraged to declare the 
presence of the disease in order to protect their neighbors from the dan- 
ger of contagion they should be paid, not what the animal affected with 
the disease is considered worth, when it is valueless, but the one-half 
or two-thirds of what would be its market value without the disease, 
and the community should share the loss which the owner should make 
in order to protect others. 

RABIES IN THE HORSE. 

Synonyms : Hydrophobia, madness, lyssa, rage, Wutlikrankheit. 

Eabies is a contagious disease, which is usually transmitted by a bite 
and by the introduction of a virus contained in the saliva of an affected 
animal, but may be transmitted in other ways. It is characterized by 
symptoms of aberration of the nervous system, and invariably termi- 
nates fatally. It is a disease essentially of the dog, but is transmitted 
to the horse, either from dogs or from any other animal affected with it. 

As a disease of the horse it is useless to enter into the etiology fur- 
ther than to assume that in this animal it is invariably the result of the 
bite of a rabid animal, usually a dog. 

Perhaps no disease in medicine has been the object of more contro- 
versy than rabies. Certain medical men of prominence have even 
doubted the existence of the disease. Many medical men have claimed 
for it a spontaneous origin. The experience, however, of ages has 
shown that contagion can be proved in the great majority of cases, and 
by analogy with other contagious diseases, we may only believe that 
the development of one case requires the preexistence of a previous 



527 

case from which the virus has been transmitted. M. Pasteur has fur- 
ther added to our knowledge of the disease by showing that a virus 
capable of cultivation exists in the nervous system, especially in the 
lower part of the brain (medulla oblongata), and in the anterior part of 
the spinal column. M. Pasteur has further shown that that portion 
of the nervous system which contains the virus, the exact nature of 
which has not yet been demonstrated, will retain it for an indefinite 
time if kept at a very low temperature, or if left surrounded by car- 
bonic acid ; but if the nerve matter, which is virulent at first, is ex- 
posed to the air and by substances which will absorb the surrounding 
moisture is kept from putrefaction, it will gradually lose its virulence 
and become inoffensive in about fifteen days. He has further shown 
that the action of a weak virus on an animal will prevent the develop- 
ment of a stronger virus, and from this he has formulated his method 
of prophylactic treatment. This treatment consists of the successive 
inoculation of portions of the nerve matter, containing the virus from 
a rabid animal, which has been exposed to the atmosphere for thirteen 
days, ten days, seven days, and four days, until the virulent matter 
which will produce rabies in any unprotected animal can be inoculated 
with impunity. A curious result of the experiments of M. Pasteur is 
that an animal which has first been inoculated with a virus of full 
strength can be protected by subsequent inoculations of attenuated 
virus repeated in doses of increasing strength. 

In the horse rabies is invariably the result of the bite of a rabid dog 
or other rabid animal. From the moment of inoculation a variable time 
elapses before the development of any symptoms. This time may be 
eight days, or it may be several months ; it is usually about four weeks. 
The first symptom is an irritation of the original wound. This wound, 
which may have healed completely, commences to itch until the horse 
rubs or bites it into a new sore. The horse then becomes irritable and 
vicious. It is especially susceptible to surrounding media ; excessive 
light, noises, the entrance of an attendant, or any other disturbance 
will cause the patient to be on the defensive. It apparently sees imag- 
inary objects ; the slightest noise is exaggera-ted iuto threatening vio- 
lence ; the approach of an attendant or another animal, especially a dog, 
is interpreted as an assault and the horse will strike and bite. The 
violence on the part of the rabid horse is not for a moment to be con- 
fouuded with the fury of the same animal suffering from meningitis or 
any other trouble of the brain. In rabies there is a volition, a pre- 
meditated method, in the attacks which the animal will make, which is 
not found in the other diseases. Between the attacks of fury the animal 
may become calm for a variable period. The writer attended a case in 
which, after a violent attack of an hour, the horse was sufficiently calm 
to be walked 10 miles and only developed violence again an hour after 
being placed in the new stable. In the period of fury the horse will 
bite at the reopened original wound j it will rear and attempt to break 



628 

its halter and fastenings ; it will bite at the woodwork and surrounding 
objects in the stable. If the animal lives long enough it shows paralytic 
symptoms and falls to the ground, uuable to use two or more of its 
extremities, but in the majority of cases, in its excesses of violence, it 
does physical injury to itself. It breaks the jaws in biting at the man- 
ger, or fractures other bones in throwing itself on the ground, and dies 
of hemorrhage or internal injuries. At times throughout the course of 
the disease there is an excessive sensibility of the skin, which, if irritated 
by the touch, will bring on attacks of violence. The animal rnay have 
appetite and desire water throughout the course of the disease, but on 
attempting to swallow has a spasm of the throat, which renders the act 
impossible. This latter condition, which is common in all rabid animals, 
has given the disea.se the name of hydrophobia (fear of water). 

In a case recently under the care of the writer a horse, four weeks 
after being bitten on the forearm by a rabid dog, developed local irri- 
tation in the healed wound and tore it with its teeth into a large ulcer. 
This was healed by local treatment in ten days and the horse was kept 
under surveillance for over a month. On the advice of auother prac- 
titioner the horse was taken home and put to work, and within three 
days it developed violent symptoms and had to be destroyed. 

The diagnosis of rabies in the horse is to be made from the various 
brain troubles to which the animal is subject; first, by the history of 
a previous bite of a rabid animal or inoculation by other means; sec- 
ondly, by the evident volition and consciousness on the part of the 
animal in its attacks, offensive and defensive, on persons, animals, or 
other disturbing surroundings. The irritation and reopening of the 
original wound or point of inoculation is a valuable factor in diagnosis. 

Recovery from rabies may be considered as a question of the cor- 
rectness of the original diagnosis. 

No remedial treatment has ever been successful. All of the anodynes 
and anaesthetics, opium, belladonna, bromide of potash, ether, chlo- 
roform, etc., have been used without avail. The prophylactic treat- 
ment of successive inoculations is being used on human beings, and has 
experimentally proved efficacious in dogs, but would be impracticable 
in the horse, which must invariably be destroyed or be so guarded as to 
protect the surrounding attendants and other animals in the same sta- 
ble, when it will die in a day or two from self-inflicted traumatism or 
paralysis. 



PLATE XXXVIJ, 




7 - Vhinflmned ivingr of the oat . 




2 Inflamed wing of the hat. 



Haines, after Ag'new. 



Sacketlt WilhelneUlhoCoNY 



I NFL AMIVTATI ON. 



PLATE XXXVm, 




1-JVon inflamed, mesentery of 'the frog ttOO diameters, reduced %,' o^ajPeruzle 
with red r/ud white corpuscles; o, (f, Gelatinous tierce fibre ; e, Cupi/iarij; d, d, 
Dark bordered nerve, fibre-; e.e. Connect ire tissue with odnAective tissue 
corpuscles ct/id (encocufes sccLti-ererZ sparse! u through it. 







m\ 



t 



c cC ff ^ 



9, Inflamed, meseutern of the froff, ttOO diameters, red need '?.' r( Jjje/ude 
filled wd/i red aj/cfw/ide corpuscles,- the red in f/ie centre raid the wJiite 
crowding along tl/e wcMs; c,c,CapMcory distended, with reef and white cor- 
piiM'cies-vnnd/cr of the ividfe mucli decreased. : d.d, Con/tectire tissue be/we."/) 
venule and rapid arc fit led with n tie/ rated leucocytes; re . Co/?necfi re tissue, 
with less iid'dtrafid/v; t. 'Dar7id) ordered nerve, fwre,; q.Xiautjerofnurlei/ 
in -sheaths increased. 



Haines, del after Agnew. 



Sacketl i Wilhelms LilhoCoN Y 



INFLAMMATION. 




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1 



SHOEING. 



By WILLIAM DICKSON, 

Veterinarian to the State Farmers' 1 Institute of Minnesota. 



Although the subject discussed iu the present chapter may not, 
strictly speaking, be entitled to a place in a category of the ailments 
to which horseflesh is heir, bad and indifferent shoeing are such pro- 
lific sources of both disability and disease in the noblest of all our 
dumb animals, that no excuse is necessary in claiming for it equal at- 
tention at the hands of those interested. 

It has sometimes been asserted that the history of every horse is a 
record of human endeavor to mar his utility. While the accuracy of 
such a sweeping assertion may fairly be called iu question, there are 
undoubtedly respects in which the horse in domestication is very often 
the victim of his owner's ignorance, indifference, or even mistaken 
kindness, and in no particular is this more strikingly conspicuous than 
in the ordinary treatment of organs so vitally essential to his useful- 
ness as his feet. No horseman questions the truth of the aphorism 
" no foot, no horse," and yet in no portion of that animal's economy 
has he suffered so many wrongs, or as a natural consequence endured 
so much uncalled-for suffering, as in his feet, and to shoeing a very large 
proportion of these evils is, beyond all doubt, directly or indirectly 
referable. 

Unfortunately, under certain conditions, shoeing is an almost un- 
avoidable consequence of the horse's domestication, and, although we 
may have no wish to uphold the traditional methods, we are driven to 
the conclusion that an artificial protection of some kind for the horse's 
foot is very frequently one of the penalties which civilization inexorably 
exacts. That the ordinary iron shoe is the best and least hurtful means 
that could be devised, I am reluctant to admit ; but, so far, even Ameri- 
can ingenuity has failed to develop anything better suited to the pur- 
pose. That the system of horseshoeing as it obtains, even in the most 
skillful hands, is pregnant with mischief to the foot, no one who is con- 
versant with the facts will venture to deny. As a matter of physiolog- 
ical fitness the shoe and its mode of attachment are utterly indefensible. 
Each time a horse is shod — every nail driven — means so much injury 
to the foot. The better the job the less that injury is; but there is no 
11035 34 529 



530 

such thing as absolute immuuity from an evil which must always exist 
in inverse ratio to the skill displayed in the execution of the work. We 
have, however, to deal with facts as we find them, and if we have, day 
after day, to impose upon our horses work of a nature which entails 
upon their feet more waste of horn than nature can replace during the 
ordinary interval of rest, we are obliged to adopt a defense of some 
kind. It would be futile to inveigh against the form of protection in 
universal use, unless we were prepared with a substitute not open to 
the same or equally serious objections. 

There is, however, at least one very large and important class of 
horses to which shoes are by no means an habitual necessity, namely, 
our agricultural horses. The nature of their work, the pace at which 
they are required to perform it, and the character of the ground over 
which they ordinarily move, all unite to render artificial protection for 
their feet, save under exceptional circumstances, all ogether uncalled 
for. When this is so, and when it is conceded that shoeing is, even 
under the most favorable circumstances, an evil (albeit in some cases a 
necessary one), a frequent cause of disease, and therefore a direct 
source of loss, it is a matter of deep regret that such a large majority 
of our farm horses, the very mainspring of our agricultural existence, 
should be needlessly subjected to a mutilation which curtails the period 
of their natural efficiency and too often renders their life thus short- 
ened one long-continued agony. For it must be borne in mind that our 
ordinary village blacksmith, of whose daily work horseshoeing forms 
but an insignificant and by no means either an easy or pleasant part, 
is not always the most competent of workmen. 

Without wishing to do injustice to our rural knights of the anvil, it 
is nevertheless a lamentable truth that these votaries of the buttress and 
drawing-knife are, all the world over, so wedded to a number of tra- 
ditionary practices, so heinous, so irrational, so prejudicial to the inter- 
ests alike of the horse and his owner, that one might w r ell be excused 
for wondering whether their mission were not to mar instead of to 
protect the marvelously perfect handiwork of the Creator. Ignorant 
alike of the anatomy, physiology, and economic relations of the parts, 
they mutilate, they cut and carve as whim, prejudice, or time-honored 
custom dictates. Disaster, it may be slowly, but surely, follows, and 
all too often the poor dumb creature's suffering foots the bill. Let us 
glance in passing at some of these traditional practices. 

Foremost among them is the insane habit of trimming the frog and 
thiuning out the sole till it visibly yield to the pressure of the opera- 
tor's thumbs. The frog is nature's cushion and hoof-expander, placed 
there by an all-wise hand ; by its elasticity it wards off concussion from 
the less elastic portions of the structure, and by its resilience assists in 
maintaining the natural expansion of its horny ambit ; that is to say, 
it does so in its natural state, but the drawing-knife's touch is fatal to 
it. Once cut and carved and deprived of pressure, those very acts 



531 

cause it to shrink, dry, and harden, and at once lose those very attri- 
butes which constitute its usefulness to the foot. Robbed of its elasticity 
and resilience, it is ineapableof discharging its allotted functions— both 
as a cushion and as an expander it is a dead failure ; indeed it is worse, 
as in its altered character if; is now a menace instead of a protection, 
a bane rather than a boon to the foot that wears it. 

The destruction of this important factor having been thus provided 
for, the operator probably next turns his attention to the sole, which, 
by all traditions of the craft, must be pared down until only a thin film 
of soft, partially formed horn is left to protect the living structures 
within against injury from the substances with which the foot neces- 
sarily comes in contact. Nor does the mischief stop here. The sole 
itself, or what is left of it, consists now of soft, moist, half-formed horn, 
which dries and shrinks on exposure to the air, and thereby entails a 
further and a still more serious injury on the foot. 

We have seen m the preceding chapters how the sole is secreted by 
the velvety tissue dependant from the membrane which invests the 
pedal bone, the minute, hollow, fibrous processes of which penetrate it 
and minister to its support. In the mutilated, shrunken sole these 
delicate fibers are pinched in the lessened caliber of the pores; the 
source of supply is cut off, and the process of repair retarded if not ab- 
solutely arrested. There seems to be a fascination about this work of 
destruction, and the incompetent workman next addresses himself to 
the self-imposed task of improving upon nature by removing the bars 
and what he calls, on the lucus a non lucendo principle, " opening" the 
heels, a process which, in plain language, means opening a road for 
them to close over. On this poor, maimed foot a shoe, often many 
sizes too small, is tacked, and the rasp is most likely called into requi- 
sition to reduce the foot to fit the shoe; for although it is apparently of 
little moment whether the shoe fits the foot, it is indispensably neces- 
sary that the foot should, somehow or other, be got to fit the shoe, and 
horseshoeing, like other arts, must needs sacrifice on the altar of ap- 
pearances. It is sad that art and nature should so often be at vari- 
ance, and that what satisfies the one should outrage the demands of 
the other. 

The foot is now shod and protected from undue wear, to be sure, but at 
what a sacrifice! Robbed of its cushion, its natural expander; its lat- 
eral braces removed ; its sole mangled and its natural repair arrested ; 
the hairlike fibers which make up the horny wall crushed, deflected, and 
their nutritive function impeded by an unnecessary number of nails; 
robbed by the rasp of its cortical layer of natural varnish, which retains 
the moisture secreted by the economy, the strong walls become desic- 
cated and weakened, and the foot is in a very sorry plight indeed. To 
some this picture may seem overdrawn, but it is nevertheless a matter 
of daily occurrence. 

Of course, even among agricultural horses, there are individuals which 



532 

can not work unshod ; but these are exceptional cases. Then, again, in 
winter, when the usual snowfall is wanting, most horses' feet will re- 
quire protection ; but nowadays an owner has himself to blame if he 
submits to having the work done in that wrong-headed and ridiculous 
manuer, which has called into existence such a long and dismal cate- 
gory of disease and misery. 

The horse's foot is, after all, a good deal of what we make it, and if our 
horses, from their colthood up, had their feet more carefully attended 
to, aud especially were they invariably to stand while in confinement 
on some material less deleterious to the hoof than dry wooden flooring, 
from which the foot suffers no attrition whatsoever, and by which it is 
moreover depleted of its natural moisture, their feet would, in the period 
of the animals' active usefulness, be found to be better shaped, harder, 
less brittle, and in every way better suited for the work required of 
them. 

In the East Indies, where pony racing is very popular and the purses 
exceedingly valuable, many expedients are resorted to to smuggle a pony 
that is over height under the 13.2 standard (the maximum height for 
ponies) among them, of course cutting down the feet as far as can be done 
with impunity. I frequently observed that those of the handsome little 
Arabs and Walers (Australians), which came up oftenest for measure- 
ment, and whose feet were in consequence most frequently pared down 
(albeit by an artist at the business, as these little animals were too valu- 
able for their owners to accept any risk of injury) were those whose feet 
subsequently stood best the trying ordeal of training and raciug on the ada- 
mantine going of the tropics. The moral of this is obvious. It might 
even be possible (t do not mean necessarily in this particular way) in the 
course of generations to develop a horse whose feet should be so improved 
that he could do all sorts of work on all sorts of going barefoot with im- 
punity ; but this would imply an amount of self-sacrifice in the present 
for the benefit of remote prosperity which is hardly to be looked for 
in this practical age, and the contention of enthusiasts that all horses 
could and should, under all circumstances, go unshod is, I fear, Utopian 
aud impractical. 

I have endeavored to show that shoeing, as generally, or at all events 
very frequently, practiced is a fruitful source of injury to our horses' 
feet; but as we cau not altogether dispense with the custom, let us turn 
to a consideration of the means which lie in our power of minimizing 
the attendant evil as much as possible. 

There is one instrument which I should like to see, if possible, omitted 
from the shoeing outfit of every farrier, and that is the drawing-knife. 
If our blacksmiths would use their knives less and their heads more in 
the execution of their very important and by no means easy duty, our 
horses would be the better for it, and so would their owners. There is 
no great mystery surrounding the subject, and the application of ordi- 
nary common sense, in lieu of the barbarous routine which has been so 



533 

long handed down from generation to generation until it lias actually 
become a portion of the blacksmith's creed, would go a long way to- 
wards obviating many, if not most, of the cruel wrongs to which our 
horses' feet are day by day needlessly subjected. 

The outside, or horny wall, and that portion of the sole which is in 
immediate contact with it, on which the shoe should rest, are the 
only portions of the foot which require to be interfered with in prepar- 
ing the foot for the shoe, and all the trimming that is necessary can and 
ought to be effected by means of the rasp. The frog and sole should 
on no pretext whatever be meddled with, save to the extent I have in- 
dicated. Their presence in their entirety, and in their natural state, 
is essentially necessary to the well-being of the foot, and neither brooks 
the touch of the steel. 

There may be differences of opinion among authorities as to minor 
details in shoeing, but there is at all events one issue on which it is 
satisfactory to know that there is absolute unanimity ; one practice 
which all alike utterly condemn ; and that is the irrational treatment 
of the frog and sole, to which I have already alluded. There is, how- 
ever, no particular in which the thinking horse-owner finds himself 
more frequently at variance with his blacksmith, for there is no detail 
in all the latter's misconceived procedure to which he clings with such 
colossal obstinacy, which is not open to argument, and which sets 
common sense at defiance. 

It is a strange fact, but none the less true, that all the world over the 
farrier is the one among all our artisans who is least amenable to sug- 
gestions from his employer. Other mechanics permit their patrons at 
least some discretion as to the size, shape, and structure of the article 
desired, but when the ordinary horse owner takes his animal to the 
shoeing forge he has usually to place himself absolutely in the black- 
smith's hands, and give him carte blanclie to cut and carve at his un- 
holy will, or else take his horse elsewhere, and there probably find him- 
self no better off. The result is that his horse's feet are mercilessly 
mutilated instead of being left as nearly as possible as nature in her in- 
effable wisdom made them. 

Plate 'Xxxxn, Fig. 1, shows the only parts which should be re- 
duced when a foot is properly prepared for the shoe. Sufficient care is 
not always given to shortening the hoof so that its angle should con- 
form exactly to the inclination of the limb. It would be misleading to 
lay down any arbitrary degree of obliquity. The angle differs in differ- 
ent cases, and the natural bias of the superimposed structures is the 
only safe guide to follow. More than one instrument has been devised 
for ascertaining the correct degree of obliquity, some of them simple and 
efficacious ; but an inspection of the foot in profile is usually the best 
way of deciding. Too much importance can not possibly be attached 
by the workman to this and the succeeding step, namely, leveling the 
ground surface of the foot, as the slightest departure from absolute 



534 

exactitude here renders whatever amount of care he may devote to the 
completion of his work worse than useless. The very smallest devia- 
tion from the perpendicular entails disastrous consequences not only 
on the foot but on the entire limb. In the foot itself, when the weight 
is borne unevenly, the lowest parts receive an undue share ; the pressure 
retards the growth of new horn, and the foot in consequence becomes 
weakened, distorted, and deformed. In the limb, deflected as it is by 
an uneven basis, from the ground surface to its union with the trunk, 
the angle of incidence of the weight is imposed unequally, and bone 
and tendon mutually suffer from the strain. 

THE SHOE. 

The shoe should be as light as the weight of the animal and the na- 
ture of the work he is expected to perform will admit of. I am not now 
writing for the trotting horseman, who knows his own business better 
than I can teach him. In referring to shoeing smiths it is possible that 
I should have made an exception in favor of the finished artist who 
arms the feet of the trotter with those masterpieces of skill and inge- 
nuity which balance his gait, level his action and perfect the rhythm of 
the motion with which he spurns the flying track behind him, when 
thousands of anxious eyes watch his every footstep, and iortunes de- 
pend on the length and tirelessuess of his stride. That is a branch of 
the business which has received an amount of attention and achiev-ed 
triumphs unrivaled or unapproached in other lands. Yet have I seen 
that artist (for he is nothing less), after fitting and setting a shoe, per- 
fect in workmanship as a piece of jewelry, reach out for his tool box 
and rasp the foot from the coronary band to the plantar border, and 
thus wantonly court disaster, for what reason let him tell us if he can. 

Heavy shoes not only burden the animal which is condemned to wear 
them, for there is truth in the old adage, "an ounce at the toe means a 
pound at the withers ; " but they also increase the concussion insepara- 
ble from progression, and even in the trotter, whose work is meted out 
to him with judicious care, although the weight doubtless accomplishes 
the work for which it was intended, it is a draft at usury on the 
horse's future soundness, which that animal is bound to take up at ma- 
turity. 

The legitimate mission of the shoe is to prevent undue wear of the 
walls, and a light shoe will do this quite as well as a heavy one ; it is 
moreover entirely erroneous to suppose that a heavy shoe necessarily 
wears longer than a light one, as experience proves the contrary, in many 
instances, to be the case. Even among our mammoth draft horses, 
whose shoes must of course be made with reference to the weight they 
have to bear and the inordinate strain to which they are subjected when 
the animal which wears them is at work, I am not prepared to admit 
that it is by any means necessary to add to the concussion to which his 
feet are unavoidably subjected, by several pounds of unyielding iron 



535 

On each foot, when shoes weighing half as much would serve the pur, 
pose equally well. The lamentably short career of our city draft horse, 
which is usually determined by foot lameness of one kind or another, is 
largely attributable to the aggravated amount of battering on hard 
pavements which his needless weight of armament entails. 

The upper surface of the shoe should be perfectly level. If the plane 
of the web inclines from outside inward, it greatly adds to the unavoid- 
able tendency to contraction which shoeing invariably entails, and there 
is a wealth of unwisdom in most of the clumsy attempts at mechanically 
spreading the heels by making the inclination in the contrary direction. 
It is true that in cases of malformation, or grave alteration of the con- 
tour of the foot, good results are obtainable by this or other mechanical 
means, but all such heroic remedies should be undertaken only at the 
instance and under the immediate supervision of the veterinary prac- 
titioner; otherwise they are liable to do harm instead of good. 

In France dilatation of the hoof by mechanical means is advocated and 
practiced more than elsewhere, but the operation is performed with the 
utmost exactitude, scrupulous care and delicacy, and under the closest 
professional supervision. Even under these favorable conditions the 
slightest accidental deviation not only defeats the object in view, but 
occasionally leads to untoward results. When contracted feet have to 
be expanded there is a far more simple, safe and at the same time effec- 
tive means of attaining that end to be found within the foot itself. By 
lowering the walls at the heels, so as to restore frog pressure, the latter 
speedily recovers its lost characteristics, and in a healthy condition 
gradually and naturally accomplishes one of the very purposes for 
which the Great Architect placed it there. 

It would seem to be unnecessary to say that the shoe should be so 
shaped as to conform exactly to the natural tread of the foot, yet a very 
common practice obtains of using a shoe of a uniform shape, often less 
in circumference, if such a term is permissible, than the foot on which 
it is to bo nailed, and then rasping down the foot to fit it. It is ob- 
viously easier to make the foot to fit the shoe than it is to make the- 
shoe to tit the foot ; a stroke or two of the rasp effects the former, but it 
is a far more arduous undertaking to modify the size and shape of the 
shoe. The outcome of this pernicious practice is disastrous in the last 
degree, more especially so in a dry climate like ours, as the walls thus 
robbed of their natural covering permit the moisture of the foot rapidly 
to evaporate, and the horn fibers, which make up the outside walls, 
instead of being compactly knit together, readily disintegrate, and in 
the course of a shoeing or two those very portions in which the nails 
should obtain firm hold possess little more adhesion than a bundle of 
broom corn. If the shoe fitted as it ought to do, a touch of the rasp 
under each clinch would be all that was necessary, and even this much 
might advantageously be dispensed with. Plate xxxxiv illustrates 
correct and incorrect fitting, figure 1 being the right and figure 2 the 
wrong way. 



536 

FITTING. 

Iii many countries what is called hot-fitting — that is to say, after the 
foot has been trimmed and leveled, momentarily applying the shoe at 
a red heat to the foot — is generally practiced to the almost entire exclu- 
sion of any other method, and the system is not only found to answer, 
but receives the indorsement of the most competent authorities. The 
climatic conditions which render the practice open to objection in this 
hemisphere fortunately enable us to dispense with a procedure against 
which there exists in the minds of many horse-owners a not unreasona- 
ble prejudice, which, however, is directed at the abuse rather than the 
intelligent application of a proceeding not necessarily hurtful in itself. 
The advantage conferred by hot-fitting consists in the fact that a more 
accurate accommodation is by this means more readily obtained than 
by any other method, and the contact between hoof and shoe can thus 
be made more intimate and enduring. In moist climates it is only by 
means of hot-fitting that a set of shoes can be got to remain on for a 
reasonable length of time; but in no part of this country have I found 
any difficulty of this nature; indeed, on the contrary, shoes are usually 
allowed to remain on too long, especially in the agricultural districts. 
It has frequently occurred to me, when in the discharge of my duties 
as veterinarian to the Farmers' Institute of Minnesota, I have remon- 
strated with some local blacksmith at the number of gigantic nails he 
employed in affixing a shoe, that I have been assured that did the slioe 
not remain on for several months his employer would be dissatisfied 
and would transfer his custom elsewhere. Nothing could be more 
short-sighted nor more unreasonable than such conduct. 

The hoof of the horse is in shape a truncated cone with the base 
downwards; as it grows the circumference of the base consequently in- 
creases, and the shoe fitted when it was newly put on after a time be- 
comes too small. It would be just as reasonable for a horse-owner to 
buy his little boy a pair of shoes which just fitted him when he was six 
years old, and then expect him to wear them until he was twelve, as it 
is for him to require his dumb servant, who can not protest against the 
infliction, to wear his shoes for months in succession without resetting. 
A badly fitting shoe is to a horse as painful as a tight boot is to his 
owner, and under no circumstances should shoes be permitted to remain 
on more than a month or five weeks at the outside; many animals re- 
quire to be reshod even more frequently. It is only when an owner lets 
his parsimony overcome his reason that he subscribes himself to a penny- 
wise and pound-foolish policy, which can only result, as such policies 
invariably do, in a loss to their exponent. 

NAILS. 

The fewest nails, and these of the smallest size, that will ensure the shoe 
remaining on for the proper length of time, is a rule that sbould never 



537 

be departed from. The nail Tioles should not be punched too fine — that 
is, too near the outside edge of the web of the shoe (this is a very com- 
mon failing of u keg shoes"); if punched coarser the nails will take a 
thicker and lower hold of the walls, and in this way obviate their having 
to be driven so high up as to approach dangerously near the sensitive 
structures. Two of the commonest errors in shoeing are using too many 
nails and these of an altogether unnecessary size, and then driving them 
too high up into the walls. If a perfectly level bearing has been ob- 
tained — as ought to be the case — it is astonishing how few and how 
small nails will hold the shoe firmly in its place ; but let the fitting be 
carelessly done, then, no matter how the shoe may be nailed on, but a 
short time elapses ere the clinches open and the shoe works loose. 
"When we bear in mind that the wall of the hoof consists of a number of 
hair-like tubes cemented together, and that each tube is one of an infinite 
number of minute canals, which diffuse throughout the horn a fluid that 
nourishes and preserves it, it will be readily understood that each nail 
driven into the wall deflects those little tubules, probably absolutely 
closing those with which it comes into actual contact and hurtfully com- 
pressing those lying half way between the nails, thus impairing if not 
destroying their utility and cutting off the supply of a material necessary 
to the foot's existence. If we could dispense with nails altogether our 
horses' feet would be immeasurably better off. This, unfortunately we 
apparently can not do, but we have it in our power to minimize an evil 
which, at present, at all events, we can not entirely avoid. There has 
recently been patented in England a nailless horseshoe, for which the 
patentees claim extraordinary excellence. I have not yet been able to 
see one of these shoes, but if they will enable us to dispense with the use 
of nails they will confer a priceless boon on horseflesh generally. From 
the description given by the patentees I fail to see, however, how the 
shoes can be kept sufficiently firmly in place, nor can I glean from the 
same source, that the new method of attachment (by means of a metal 
band and studs) is equally efficacious with the old, or less injurious. 

There is, however, one shoe, without some allusion to which any essay 
of this kind would be incomplete, namely, the " Charlier shoe," in- 
vented some years ago by M. Charlier, a well-known veterinary sur- 
geon of Paris, France, which has never, in my opinion, received either 
the attention or trial its merits deserve. Common sense and science 
alike indorse it, and were the system to become more generally known 
in this country I venture to assert that there is an extremely large num- 
ber of cases in which it would be found both appropriate and benefi- 
cial. For this reason I will briefly describe it. The shoes used are 
about one-third the weight of an ordinary shoe, and less than one-half 
the width. In preparing the foot for the shoe and sole, frog and bars 
are left, as they ought to be, absolutely untouched, and a groove is cut, 
bj r means of a knife specially designed for the purpose, in the wall, not 
high enough to reach above the sole level, and less than the thickness 



538 

of the wall in depth. Into this groove a larrow but thick band of iron 
is sunk and nailed to the foot by meant, of four to six conical-headed 
nails, the heads being countersunk in the shoe. The advantage of this 
method of shoeing is that the frog, bars, and a portion of the sole 
come to the ground exactly as if the foot were unshod, and one and all 
participate in weight-bearing as it was obviously intended they should, 
while the wall is protected from wear by the small rim of iron let into its 
ground surface. 

A modification of the system has been suggested by an enthusiast 
who writes under the name of" Free Lance," which possesses even supe- 
rior advantages. Under this system only tips or toe-pieces of the Char- 
lier pattern are used, the foot being prepared for their reception, as 
shown in Plate xxxxiv, Fig. 3. The tips are made with their ground 
surface broader than their upper face, and the outside edge of the web, 
beveled off so as to follow the angle of the profiles of the foot. Plate 
xxxxiv, Fig. 4. 

I have used both the Oharlier shoe and the tip in this country as well 
as in the East Indies, and I am perfectly satisfied that in many respects 
they are superior to any other model. They are infinitely lighter, the 
nails are smaller and fewer in number ; all steps in the right direction ; 
but the dominant superiority of the device consists in the fact that the 
frog obtains pressure to the extent contemplated by nature, and in the 
case of the Charlier tip particularly the exercise of its double function 
as a buffer and dilator is absolutely untrammeled in auyway by the 
shoe. 

FINISHING TOUCHES. 

When the shoe has been fitted, the nails driven, drawn up, and 
clinched, there should be nothing left to be done. Very frequently, 
however, it is just at this stage that the incompetent workman, in the 
most uncalled for manner, inflicts serious and lasting injury on the foot. 
If the wall has not been sufficiently reduced in leveling the foot, or if 
the shoe used is too small, the rasp is required to reduce the projecting 
parts. (Plate xxxxiv, Fig. 2.) Often, indeed, when there is not even 
this pretext, the whole surface of the foot is subjected to its relentless 
touch. No procedure could well be devised which would be more hurt- 
ful to the foot. In its natural state the entire hoof, from the coronet to 
the sole level, is covered by a fine coating of natural varnish, thickest at 
the upper margin and gradually becoming thinner as it descends. Under 
cover of this beneficent curtain the new horn is secreted and protected 
until it has attained maturity. The moisture secreted by the animal 
economy, necessary to the perfection of the horn, is retained within it, 
and the prejudicial influences of alternating drought and moisture are 
set at defiance. In a very dry atmosphere like ours it is of paramount 
importance that this beautiful shield should be preserved and fostered, 
and no name is bad enough for a senseless custom which, to serve no 



539 

good purpose, robs the foot of a necessary protection which it is beyond 
the power of art to imitate or replace. 

WINTER SHOEING. 

The subject of winter shoeing presents, in many sections of the coun- 
try, fresh difficulties, for now the shoe is required, iu the case of all 
classes of horses, to discharge a double duty ; to afford foothold as well 
as guard against undue wear. Various patterns of shoes have from 
time to time been invented to meet this dual requirement, but the com- 
monest of all, fashioned with shoe and heel calks or calkins, is, faulty 
though it be, probably, all things considered, the one which best suits 
the requirements of the case. It should, however, never be lost sight 
of that the shorter, the sharper, and the smaller the calkins are, 
so long as they answer the purpose which called them into existence, 
so much the better for the foot that wears them. High calkins, while 
they confer no firmer foothold, are potent means of inflicting injury 
both on the foot itself and the superincumbent limb at large. It is only 
from that portion of the catch which enters the ground surface that the 
horse derives any benefit in the shape of foothold, and it must be ap- 
parent to the meanest capacity that long calkins, which do not pene- 
trate the hard, uneven ground, are so many levers put into the animal's 
possession to enable if not compel him to wring his feet, rack his limbs, 
and inflict untold tortures on himself. I have laid particular stress on 
this subject, as I am of opinion that the presence of navicular disease, 
a dire malady from which horses used for agricultural labor should 
enjoy a practical immunity, is traceable largely to the habitual use, 
during our long winter months, of needlessly large calkins, only frac- 
tional parts of which find lodgment in the earth or ice during progres- 
sion. I will explain what I mean. When a horse is shod with the exag- 
gerated calkins to which I have alluded, the toe and heel calks are, or 
ought to be, the same height, to start with, at all events. Very often, 
however, they are not, and even when they are, the toe calk wears 
down on animals used for draft purposes far more rapidly than its 
fellows at the heel. The result is that the toe is depressed while the 
heel is unnaturally raised. The relative position of the bony structures 
within the foot is altered, and the navicular bone, which is not one of 
the weight-bearing bones, is brought within the angle of incidence of 
both weight and concussion, influences which it was never contem- 
plated it should withstand, and which its structure precludes its sus- 
taining without injury. The bone becomes first bruised and then dis- 
eased; the tendon, to which it was intended it should act as a pulley, 
which passes over and is in constant contact with it, before long also 
becomes implicated, and what is technically known as navicular arthri- 
tis is thus engendered and developed. 



540 

SHOEING FOR A SPECIFIC PURPOSE. 

Thanks to the amount of attention which every detail that could 
possibly tend to the more perfect development of that paragon of horse- 
flesh, the American trotter, has received at the hands of all classes of 
men, the matter of shoeing for specific purposes has made greater 
progress in America than in any other country on the face of the globe, 
and that is a department of the farrier's art which is justly entitled to 
the highest eulogium that can be bestowed upon it. 

The different styles of shoes which have been devised are marvels of 
ingenuity, and many of them are admirably effective as remedial agents 
for faulty gaits and uneven action. Their number is infinite, but as 
many are applicable only, or in a large measure, to horses used solely 
for speed purposes, any attempt at classification or detailed description 
would be out of place in a work of this kind. When intelligently ap- 
plied a considerable number are, however, potent auxiliaries in mitigating 
in some cases the results of natural defects of conformation amongst 
animals whose lot is cast in the humbler if more useful fields of horse 
enterprise. Among these are the scoop-toed or roller-motion shoe for 
the fore feet (Plate xxxxn, Fig. 2) and the shoe (Plate xxxxn, Fig. 
3) for the hind feet, which, while they obviate "forging" or "clicking," 
a habit hurtful to the horse and singularly annoying to his driver, do 
not in anyway tend to inflict injury on the feet or limbs. The scooped or 
rolled toe confers a mechanical advantage, enabling the animal to get 
over his toes more promptly and thus remove the front foot from the 
stroke of the hind extremity, while the lengthening of the branches of 
the hind shoes, by increasing the ground surface, retards the flexion 
and extension of the hind limbs. 

The common practice of increasing the weight of the outside web of 
the hind shoes, to open the action (Plate xxxxn, Fig. 4), is equally 
harmless and efficacious when not carried to extremes. 

Plate xxxxiii, Fig. 1, is the most effective model of shoe to square 
and balance the gait of unmade horses, but the period of its use should 
be strictly limited and the weight of the toe gradually reduced as the 
desired gait becomes established. An ingenious shoe to prevent "dish- 
ing" or "paddling" is shown in Plate xxxxiii, Fig. 2, but I can not 
acknowledge so implicit confidence in its efficacy, as the vice is the re- 
sult of a physical malformation, which mechanical means can go but a 
small way to remove or palliate. 

There are many other styles of shoe, the product of American inge- 
nuity, for which probably equal merit might be claimed, but there are 
others, which, while they may cure or mitigate the special defect against 
which they are directed, only do so at the expense of some other por- 
tion of the structure. It has many a time furnished food for thought 
to the writer, that, in this great commonwealth, while there are such a 
large number of artificers who make horseshoeing a profession, who 



541 

offer such convincing testimony of a vast amount of careful thought 
and patient study of at least some of the principles of tbeir very im- 
portant profession as many of these devices afford, the bulk of such 
work should be permitted to fall into the hands of a set of incompetent, 
ignorant, and ofttimes unprincipled bunglers, who prey upon the cre- 
dulity of their employers and inflict upon the most generous of all our 
dumb servants an amount of injury which curtails the period of his use- 
fulness and results in his premature decadence at an age when he ought 
still to be iu his prime. It is possible, if not probable, that in the fu- 
ture it may become a less invidious task to discuss this much vexed 
problem. In this age of marvelous ingenuity, is it visionary to hope 
that it is within the power of chemistry to develop some preparation 
which, applied to our horses' hoofs in a liquid or pultaceous form, will 
quickly harden into a substance closely resembling the natural horn, 
which will enable us to dispense altogether with the heavy, unyielding 
iron, and while it affords the necessary protection to the foot will per- 
mit it to retain to the full its wondrous combination of lightness, 
strength and elasticity, and enable it to perform its varied functions 
under the most exacting conditions which advanced civilization can 
impose, with that marvelous trinity of apparently incompatible charac- 
teristics unhampered as they left the workshop of the Creator, all act- 
ing together in perfect harmony and absolute efficiency ? 

In the meantime it behooves us to make the most of the means within 
our power. Our horses are national property. Surely, therefore, it is 
time that the possibility of a great national economy was recognized, 
and some legislation formulated which would require an established 
standard of attainment in a class of workmen to whose care property 
of such value is habitually intrusted, and upon w r hose proficiency, or 
the reverse, so much of its utility or comparative worthlessness depends, 
while it, at the same time, provided for some means of practical instruc- 
tion which contemplated raising the science of horseshoeing above the 
baneful influences of ignorance and traditional routine, to that position 
to which its importance to us as a people justly entitles it. 



1 'LATE JKXXXEL 







The foot ready for the shoe,shmring 
frog a?ut bars as they should be left. 




Front viewofscoqp-toe rolling-motion slwe-. 




Hind foot shoe to baZa/ice the actiorv. 



Side weight s7we for fund foot. 



Fig's 2,3 and 4 from Russell's Scientific Horse-shoeing" 



Saclell * Wdhelms LlhoCoN Y 



PLATE XXXXII1 




Toe weight slwes. 




l\ T 07i-paddJing s7we . 



from Russell's Scientific Horse-shoeing" 



Sackeu 4 Wilhelms UlhoCo N Y 



PLATE XXXXIV 





Foot prepared for CAartier tip. 



Foot shod with Charlier too. 




Plan far surf lice of foot 
with Ckajiiertip. 





Right fitting. 



irj tunny. 



SackeuiWilhelmsUthoCoNY 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Abdomen, dropsy of 54 

of foal, dropsy of , 164 

swelling of . 142 

Abortion 153 

Abrasions by collar and saddle 454 

Abscesses, acute 455 

cold or chronic 456 

intercostal - 128 

of the brain 186 

heart 229 

pharynx 27 

Acariasis 438 

Amaurosis 203,267 

Amnios, dropsy of 151 

Anaemia, cerebral 194 

spinal 206 

Anasarca 487, 490 

Anchylosis from injury of joints 325 

Aueurism 238 

Ankles, cocked 362 

diseases of 357 

Anthrax 510 

Apoplexy, cerebral ....<..... 192 

of the lungs 116 

Arsenical poisoning 34 

Arteries, aneurism of 238 

constriction of. .... 238 

diseases of 236 

inflammation of 236 

nature aud functions of 221 

rupture of 239 

thrombi and embolisms in 240, 353 

Arthritis , 323 

Ascites 54, 164 

Asthma 129 

Atheroma 237 

Atrophy of the brain 195 

heart 235 

Auscultation 107 

Azotairaia 66 

Azoturia 66 

Balls, how to administer 9 

Bee stings 441 

543 



544 

Page. 

Beets as feed 21 

Belly-ache (See also Colic) 39 

Big leg (lymphangitis) 246 

Black pigment tumors 256,436 

Black-water (azoturia) 06 

Bladder, diseased growths in 75 

eversion of 76 

inflammation of 73 

irritable 74 

paralysis of 72 

spasm of neck of 71 

stone in 83, 161 

worms 70 

Bleeding after castration 142 

from lungs 128 

ruptured artery 23!) 

womb 175 

skin eruption 429 

Blind staggers 210 

Bloat (tympanites) 31,41 

Blood spavin 322 

vessels, diseases of 219, 223 

Bloody flux (dysentery) 47 

urine 65 

Bog spavin (blood spavin) 322 

Boils, nature and treatment of 427,430 

on the eyelid 255 

Bone spavin 287 

Bones, anatomy of 271 

diseases of 279 

fractures of 291 

BotB 34 

BoAvels. (See Intestines.) 

Brain, abscess of 186 

affections, acute 187 

anaemia of 194 

anatomy and physiology of 181 

atrophy of 195 

complication from influenza 482 

compression of 193 

concussion of 193 

congestion of 189 

dropsy of 195 

envelopes, inflammation of 185 

hemorrhage of 192 

inflammation of 183 

paralysis of 187 

softening of 186 

substance, inflammation of 186 

Bran as feed 21 

Broken bones. (See Fractures.) 

knees 323 

wind 129 

Bronchitis 108 

Broncho-pleuro -pneumonia 127 



545 

Page. 

Broncho-pueumonia 128 

Bruises "325,449 

Burns and scalds 442,454 

Bursa?. (See Synovial sacs.) 

Calculi, biliary 58 

gastric 43 

intestinal , 44 

preputial 86 

renal 81 

urethral 85 

uretral 82 

urinary, classes of 77 

vesical 83,161 

Calk wounds 3(>b 

Callosities 435 

Cancer, encepbaloid (soft) 257,268 

epithelial 436 

spinal , 208 

Canker in foot 380,431 

Capped elbow 342 

hock 348 

knee 345 

Carpitis 323,325 

Carrots as feed 21 

Castration, conditions favorable to 141 

covered method of 143 

of cryptorchids (ridglings) 141 

mares ■. 143 

stallions 140 

treatment of complications of 141, 142 

Cataract... 267 

Catarrh, acute nasal , 90 

chronic 92 

Catarrhal fever 493 

Cerebri tis 186 

Cerebro-spinal meningitis J 209 

Chaff as feed 20 

Chafing by harness 454 

Chapped hock 430 

knee J 430 

Charbon (anthrax) 510 

Charlier shoe 537 

Chest cough 107 

diseases, methods of examination for 105 

percussion 108 

pulse 105 

respiration 106 

secretions 107 

temperature 106 

wounds 133 

Chigoe, treatment for 442 

Choking, causes of 27 

cervical 29 

thoracic 28 

Chorea 198 

11035 35 



546 

Page. 

Choroiditis ' 260 

CI ubfoot 360 

Coma (sleepy staggers) 199 

Cocked ankles (knuckling) 362 

Cold in the head 90 

Colic, cramp or spasmodic 39 

flatulent or wind iS ., 41 

from aneurism ....... 239 

Collar galls 4f>4 

Colt-ill 493 

Concretions, gastric 43 

intestinal 43 

Congestion, causes of 464 

of the brain 189 

lungs 114 

skin 422 

passive 465 

spinal 206 

Conjunctivitis 258 

Constipation 43 

Corn as feed 21 

Cornea, ulcers of 260 

Corns 382 

Costi veness 43 

Cough, chronic 132 

dry and moist 107 

Cracked heels 430 

Cramp of hind limb 197 

Cramp-colic 39 

Cramps 196 

during parturition 152 

Cranium, tumors in 196 

Crick in the back 355 

Croup 101 

Curb 337 

Cuts 447 

Cyanosis 236 

Dentition 23 

Dermatorrhagica parasitica 429 

Diabetes insipidus 62 

mellitus (saccharine) 63 

Diaphragm, rupture of 134 

spasms of 134 

Diarrhea 46 

Digestive organs, diseases of 15 

Diphtheria 101 

Dislocations, indications of 326 

of the hip joint 328 

patella 328 

shoulder joint 327 

reduction of 326 

Distemper 493 

Diuresis 62 

Douche, nasal 12 

Dourine ,....,,.,...., -.-.,. 139 



547 

Page. 

Drenches, how to administer 10 

Dropsy of abdomen 54, 151 

amnios 151 

brain 195 

foetus . 164 

limbs and perinseum 151 

scrotum 137 

synovial sacs 321 

womb 150 

Dysentery 47 

Ectropion 255 

Eczema 424 

Edema (cedema) 489 

Elbow, capped 342 

sprain of muscles of 332 

Electric shock 216 

Electuaries 10 

Elephantiasis .246 

Embolisms - 240,353 

Embryotomy 173 

Emphysema of foetus 164 

Encephalitis 184 

Endarteritis 236 

Endocarditis 224 

Enemas 12,40 

Enteritis 49 

Entropion . 255 

Epilepsy 199 

Epithelioma 138,436 

Epizooty (See also Influenza) 476 

Eruptions, bleeding skin -.... 429 

Erythema 422 

Erysipelas 433 

Exostosis - 279 

Eye, affection of cornea of 260 

diseases of 247 

examination of 250 

lachrymal apparatus of i 250 

muscles of 249 

parasites in 268 

watering of 257 

Eyeball, anatomy of 247 

tumors of... 268 

Eyelids, boils on 255 

diseases of 251 

drooping 252 

inflammation of 252 

inversion and eversion of 255 

spasm of 251 

tumors of 255, 256 

warts on 255 

wounds of 256 

Fainting 233 

Falling fits ................. ,,.,,,,... .....»....,,, „„ 199 



548 

Page. 

Farcy buds 426,520 

chrouic (See also Glanders) 520 

Favus 4:57 

Feeding 17 

Fetlock, d iseases of 357 

sprain of 364 

Fevers, kinds of 472 

rheumatic 476 

splenic 510 

treatment of 475 

Fistuke 4.",7 

of the foot (quittor) 368,400 

Flat foot 360 

Flatulent colic (tympauitis) 31, 41 

Flaxseed as feed 21 

Fleas 441 

Flexor metatarsi, rupture of 340 

Flies, protection from 441 

Flooding 175 

Flux, bloody (dysentery) 47 

Fly-blow 440 

Foaling (See also Parturition) 156,167 

Foetus, adherent to walls of womb 162 

constriction of member by navel cord 163 

dissection of 173 

dropsy of.... 164 

emphysema of 164 

excessive size of 163 

extra-uterine development of 149 

prolonged retention of 152 

tumors of 165 

Foods and feeding 17 

effects of changes of 19 

preparation of 22 

Foot, auatomy of 357 

complication from influenza 483 

diseases of 357 

faults of conformation 360 

mange 439 

wounds of 387 

Founder (See also Lamiuitis) 401 

Fractures, causes of 292 

nature of •. 291 

of bones of face 304 

cannon bones 317 

coronet _ 318 

cranial bones 304 

femur 314 

first phalanx 317 

forearm 313 

hip bone, effect in parturition 158 

hock 317 

humerus 313 

knee 314 

lower jaw r . ...... ..,,..., 305 



549 

Paere. 

Fiactnrcs of os innominata 309 

pedis 318 

pa fcella 316 

preniaxillary bone 305 

ribs 308 

sacrum 159, 309 

scapula 312 

sesamoid bones 319 

tibia 316 

vertebras 306 

prognosis of 297 

reduction of 300 

retention of 302 

Frog, bruise of 386 

Frostbites 367 

Furuncles (See also Boils) 427 

Gall-stones 58 

Galls, collar and saddle 454 

Gangrene 128, 412 

Gastri tis 33 

Generative organs, diseases of 135 

Gestation, extra uterine 149 

prolonged 152 

Glanders 514 

acute 523 

cause of 516 

cbronic 522 

pustules of 426 

treatment of 525 

Gleet, nasal 92 

urethral 76 

Glossitis . 25 

Glycosuria . . 63 

Grains, feeding value of 20 

Grasses, feeding value of ...... 22 

Gravel 77 

Grease 431 

Grubs on and under the skin , 440 

Grunting ......... 103 

Gullet, diseases of (See also GEsophagus) , , . „ 27 

G unshot wounds .,» , 453 

Gut tie , , , 46 

Guttural pouches -.., . 104 

Harness galls , . 454 

Hematuria 65 

Hemoglobinuria . . 66 

Haemorrhoids 48 

Haw, tumor of 256 

Hay as feed 19 

Heart, adventitious growths in 231 

anatomy and physiology of 219 

atrophy of 235 

congestion of 236 

dilatat ion of 234 

diseases of 219,223 



5> r )0 

Heart, enlargement of 233 

fatty degeneration of 235 

functional and organic diseases of 232 

hypertrophy of 233 

palpitation of 232 

rupture of 230 

sounds of 222 

valvular disease of 230 

weakness of 236 

Heaves 129 

Heels, contracted 3 ( J0 

cracked 430 

inflamed 431 

Hemiplegia 200 

Hemorrhage, cerehral 192 

Hepatitis 55 

Hernia, dipbraginatic 53 

inguinal , 51 

kinds of 51 

scrotal 51 

umbilical 52 

uteriue 159 

ventral 52 

Herpes (shingles) _ 429 

phlyctenoid 506 

High blowing 103 

Hip bones, fractured, effect in parturition 158 

joint, dislocation of 323 

lameness 333 

Hip-joiut disease 334 

Hock, capped 348 

chapped 430 

Hoof, contracted 390 

cracked 392 

Hoof-bound 390 

Horny sloughs 435 

Horsepox 506 

Hydrocele 137 

Hydrocephalus 163, 195 

Hydrophobia 215,526 

Hydro-thorax 127 

Hypertrophy of the heart 233 

Indigestion 36 

Inflammation, character of .. 461,466 

of the bladder 73 

bowels 49 

braiu and its membranes 183 

eyelids 252 

heart 224 

heart-case 229 

kidneys 68 

knee joint . 323, 324 

lymphatic glands 245 

mouth (stomatitis) 25 



551 

Page. 

Inflammation of the nerves 208 

periosteum 279 

skin ,, 424,426 

testicles , , . . T . . . , 135 

tongue , 25 

womb and peritoneum 178 

Influenza, alterations of 485 

complications of 480 

definition of 476 

diagnosis of 484 

etiology of 477 

prognosis of 485 

sequelae of 487, 491 

symptoms of 478 

terminations of 480, 489 

treatment of 486 

Injections 12, 13, 40 

Inosuria 63 

Insufflation of medicines 11 

Interfering 350,361 

Intestines, complication from influenza 480 

diseases of 39 

inflammation of 49 

intussusception or invagination of 45 

large, impaction of 42 

stones (calculi) in 44 

twisting of 46 

worms in 37 

Icterus , 57 

Iritis 260 

Itching from mange 438 

Jaundice . 57 

Jerks (chorea) 198 

Joint water (synovia), escape of 323 

Joints, diseases of 320 

dislocated 326 

open 323 

stiffened by injury (anchylosis) . -. 325 

Kidneys, acute inflammation of 68 

chronic inflammation of 69 

tumors of 70 

Knees, broken 323 

capped 345 

chapped 430 

effects of injuries to 323 

sprung 336 

Knuckling 362 

Labor pains, premature 158 

suppression from bladder disoider 161 

Lameness, causes and treatment of 269 

definition of 274 

location of 278 

of the hip 333 

shoulder 330 

Lamiuitis (founder) 401 



552 

Pa go. 

Lam in it is, com p I i cat ions of 410 

curative measures for 417 

exciting causes of 402 

following parturition 179 

prevention of 415 

symptoms of 405 

treatment of 414 

Lampas 25 

Larva} on and under the skin 440 

Laryngitis 96 

Laryngismus paralyticus 101,202 

Larynx, spasm of 100 

Lead poisoning 33, 215 

Leucorrhoea 179 

Lice 439,442 

Ligament, suspensory, rupture of 365 

L nsced as feed 21 

Liver, diseases of 55 

inflammation of 55 

rupture of 57 

stone in ducts of 58 

Lock-jaw : 212 

Locomotor ataxia 202 

Loius, sprains of 355 

Lung fever 116 

Lungs, abscess aud suppuration in 128 

anatomy of 112 

apoplexy of 116 

bleeding from 128 

complication from influenza 481 

congestion of 114 

consumption of 129 

dropsy of 129 

mortification of 128 

Luxations (See also Dislocations) 326 

Lymphangitis 246,488 

Lymphatic glands, abscess and inflammation of 245 

hypertrophied 245 

system, diseases of 244 

Mad staggers 185 

Madness (rabies) 215 

Maize as feed 21 

Malignant pustule (anthrax) 510 

Mai du coit 139 

Mange 419,438 

Masturbation 138 

Medicines, how to administer 9 

inhalation of 11 

injection of 12, 13 

insufflatiou of 11 

Megrims 189 

Melanosis 256, 436 

Meningitis, corehro-spinal 185, 209 

spinal 204 

Metastasis - 489 



553 

Page. 

Moles 150 

Monstrosities 150, 1G5 

Moon-blindness 263 

Morbus coxari us 334 

Mortification 128 

Mouth, diseases of 25 

Muscles, anatomy of 271 

diseases of 329 

of foal, contraction of 165 

Myelitis 205 

Myocarditis 224 

Nail pricks 389 

Nails for shoeing 536 

Nasal catarrh 90 

douche , 12 

gleet 92 

Navel, discharge of uriue by 75 

Navicular disease 395 

Nephritis, acute 68 

Nerve, inflammation of 208 

injury to 209 

tumor of .* 209 

Nervous system, diseases of 181 

Nettlerash 427 

Neuroma 209 

Neuritis 208 

Nose, bleeding from 95 

Nostrils, tumors in 90 

wounds near , . . 89 

Oats as feed 20 

(Edema, enteric .». 489 

pulmonary 489 

(Esophagus, diseases of 27 

sacnlar dilatation of 29 

stricture of 29 

Open joints 323 

Ophthalmia, external 25S 

internal 260 

recurrent or periodic T 267 

Optic nerve, paralysis of 203, 263 

Orchitis 135 

Ostitis 279 

Overreach 366 

Palpitation of the heart 232 

Palsy (See also Paralysis) 200 

Papilloma 138 

Paralysis (palsy) 200 

during preguancy 152 

facial 202 

intestinal 202 

local 202 

of bladder 203 

hind extremities 152, 201 

muscles of limbs 202 

optic nerve 152,203,267 



554 

Paralysis of penis 138 

rectum and tail 202 

side of body 200 

Paraphymosis 143 

Paraplegia 201 

Parasites, animal, of the eye 2U8 

kidneys 70 

skin 43W 

vegetable, of the skiu 436 

Parasitic pityriasis 438 

Parrot-mouth 24 

Parturition, difficult 156, 158, 163 

natural 156 

of twins 167 

symptoms of 156 

Pastern, injured by knuckling 362 

Patella, pseudo luxation of 328 

Pediculi 442 

Peditis 412 

Pelvis, tumors in 159 

Penis, growths on 138 

paralysis of 133 

ruptured blood vessels of 138 

swelled 142 

warts on 138 

Pericarditis 229 

with influenza 483 

Perinseum, dropsy of 151 

Periostitis 279,412 

Peritonitis 54 

Pharnygitis 26 

Pharynx, abscesses in 27 

inflammation of 96 

paralysis of 26 

Phlebitis 241 

Phymosis 143 

Pigeon-toed foot 360,361 

Piles = 48 

Pimples with congestion 424 

Pink-eye (See also Influenza) 476 

Pin- worm 38 

Pityriasis 428 

Pleurisy 123 

symptoms and prognosis 124 

treatment of 126 

with influenza 483 

Pleurodynia 132 

Pleuro-pneumonia 127 

Plica polonica 437 

Plumbism 33,215 

Pneumonia (lung fever) 116 

metastatic 410 

(Edematous 500 

with bronchitis 128 

and pleurisy 127 



555 

fage. 

Pneumonia with pleurisy ..„.., , . .... 127 

Poisoning, arsenical . . 34 

lead 33,215 

Poll evil .. ? ....... r 457 

Polypus, nasal 94 

pharyngeal 95 

Polyuria . ....,...,, 62 

Potatoes as feed ^ . - - - . - - 21 

Powders, bow to administer , , ....... 9 

Presentations, natural. 156 

wrong 167 

Pregnancy, care of mare during 148 

constipation during 152 

duration of 148 

indications of 146 

ovarian, tubal, and abdominal 149 

paralysis during 152 

Proud flesh 448 

Pruritus 428 

Psoroptic acariasis 439 

Ptosis 252 

Ptyalisni 25 

Pulse 105,222 

Pumiced sole 412 

Purpura hemorrhagica (anasarca) 243, 4h7 

Pustules with inflammation 426 

Pyaemia 410 

Quarter-cracks 392 

Quidding . 24 

Quittor 368,460 

cartilaginous 377 

cutaneous 363 

subhorny 375 

tendinous 372 

Rabies 215, 526 

Rectum, impaction of 161 

paralysis of 202 

Respiration 106 

Respiratory organs, diseases of 87 

Retinitis 260 

Rheumatic fever, remedies for ,. 476 

Ringbone 283,399 

Ringworm, circinate 436 

honeycomb ,. 437 

Roaring 101,202 

Rodent ulcer 436 

Roots as feed 21 

Rupture ( See also Hernia) 51 

of arteries 239 

the diaphragm 134 

heart 236 

liver 57 

shank muscle (flexor metatarsi) 340 

stomach 32 

suspensory ligament 365 



556 

Page. 

Rupture of the womb 159 

Rye as feed 21 

Saddle galls 454 

Saliva, excessive flow of* 25 

Sand-cracks 392 

Sarcocele .• 136 

Sarcoptic acariasis 438 

Scalds 142,454 

Scaluia 496 

Scaly ski n diseases 428 

Scapula, fracture of 312 

Scarlatiua (anasarca) 487 

Sclerosis, cerebral 187 

spiual 205 

Scorpion, sting of 442 

Scour 4(1 

Scratches 430 

Scrotum, dropsy of 137 

Secretions 107 

Self-abuse 138 

Septicemia 410,489,491 

Sheath, calculi iu 80 

swelling of 142 

Shingles (herpes) 429 

Shivering (chorea) 198 

Shoe boil 342 

Shoeing, article on 529 

bad methods of 530 

finishing touches in : 538 

for specific purposes 540 

winter 539 

nail prick in 389 

preparing the foot for 533 

use of nails in 536 

Shoes, best form of 534 

Charlier pattern of 537 

fitting of . 536 

various styles of , 540 

Shoulder, dislocation of joint of 327 

lameness of , 330 

Shoulder-blade (scapula), fracture of , 312 

Sidebones 286,398,410 

Sitfasts , 435 

Skin, bleeding eruptions of ,, 42J 

disease, scaly . . . . 428 

diseases of . . . . 419, 422 

nervous irritation of 428 

structure of 420 

thread worms iu 430 

Sleepy staggers r . . . . 199 

Slobbering (ptyalism). . ... . . . . 25 

Snake bites ..... 442 

Softening of the brain 186 

Sole, pumiced 412 

Sore mouth ----- 25 



557 

Taga. 

Sore throat 96 

Sores, summer, from thread worm 430 

Spasms, causes of 196 

of diaphragm 197 

glottis 196 

intestines 39 

larynx 100 

neck of bladder 196 

womb 161 

thigh or hind limb 19? 

Spavin, blood or bog 322 

bone 287 

occult 287 

Spaying 143 

Speedy-cuts 350,361 

Spermatic cord, strangulated 142 

tumors on, from castration 143 

Spinal ansemia 206 

compression 207 

concussion 208 

congestion and hyperemia 206 

cord 183 

hemorrhage 207 

nerves 183 

sclerosis 205 

tumors 208 

Splenic fever 510 

Splints 280 

Sprains, causes and treatment of 329 

of the elbow muscles 332 

hips 333 

ligaments and tendons 365 

loins 355 

shoulder 330 

Springhalt (stringhalt) 198,352 

Sprung knees 336 

Staggers, mad or blind 185,210 

sleepy 199 

stomach 30 

Stallions, castration of ' 140 

Staphyloma 268 

Sterility 144 

Stethoscope, use of 108 

Stiffness of joints (anchylosis) from injuries 325 

Stifle-bone (patella), false dislocation of 328 

Stings 441 

Stocking — 431 

Stomach, diseases of 30 

gorged - 30 

inflammation of 33 

rupture of - 32 

staggers 30 

tympanites of (bloat) 31, 41 

Stomatitis 25 

Stone in the bladder 83,161 



558 

Stone in the gall bladder 58 

intestines 44 

kidney 81 

sheath ....,• 86 

stomach ^ ; . , < . 43 

ureter an .;. ^.^ 82 

urethra ,.^.. 85 

Strangles ,,.,...,.. 493 

Straw as feed .= 20 

Stringhalt 198,352 

Stye 255 

Summer sores '. 430 

Sunstroke 191 

Surfeit 427 

Superpurgation 47 

Suspensory ligament, rupture of 365 

Sweeny 331 

Syncope 233 

Synovial fluid, escape of 323 

sacs, diseases of 321 

Synovitis 321,323 

Tail, paralysis of 202 

Tape-worms 38 

Tarantula, bite of 442 

Tear ducts, inflamed '. 257 

Teats, diseases of 179,180 

Teeth, aching 24 

diseases of 23 

irregularities of 23 

Teethiug 23 

Temperature 106 

Tendons, diseases of 329 

lacerated 338 

Testicles, abnormal number of 137 

congestion and inflammation of.. 135 

degeneration of 137 

enlarged and hardened (sarcocele) 136 

thickening of cord of (varicocele) 137 

Tetanus 212 

Thick wind 103 

Thoroughpin 322 

Thread worm 429 

Throat, soreness of 96 

Thrush 379 

Thumps 134,197 

Ticks 440 

Tinea tonsurans 436 

Tip (shoe), form of 391 

Tissues, animal 461 

Toe, turning up of 414 

Toe-cracks 392 

Tougue, inflammation of 25 

Toothache 24 

Tracheotomy, operation of 98 

Trichiasis .,,.,,...,..,.... .. 255 



559 

Page. 

Tuberculosis (consumption) ....;. 129 

Tumors, black pigment 256; 436 

in vagina and pel Vis .;......;..;..:....;. ii... a i5$ 

of a nerve ....it..... 209 

the cranium 195 

eyeball 268 

fcetus 165 

baw 256 

kidneys 70 

nostrils 90 

spermatic cord 143 

spine 208 

udder 180 

Twins, delivery of 167 

Tympanites 41 

Typhoid fever (See also Influeuza) 476 

Udder, diseases of 179 

tumors of 180 

Ulcers of cornea 260 

Urachus, persistent 75 

Uraemia 216 

Urethra, inflammation of . 76 

stone in 85 

stricture of 77 

Urinary organs, diseases of 59 

Urine, bloody . . 65 

brownish or black 66 

discharge of, by navel 75 

examination of 61 

excessive secretion of 62 

sweet (glycosuria) 64 

Urticaria 427 

Uterus. (See. Womb.) 

Vachette clasp for toe- crack 394 

Vagina, constriction of 162 

effusion of blood im walls of 161 

rupture of 162 

tumors in 159 

Varicocele 137 

Variola 506 

Varix 242 

Veins, dilated or varicose 242 

diseases of 241 

entrauce of air into 243 

Vertigo (megrims) 189 

Volvulus 46 

Warts - 436 

on tho penis 138 

teats 180 

Water, amount required for drink 15 

impurities of 16 

time for giving 16 

Wheat as feed 21 

Whistling 103 

Wind colic (tympanites) ... T .. ............ ...,. 31,41 



5G0 

Tajre. 

Wind-broken 129 

Windfalls 321,363 

Windpipe 104 

Withers, fistulous 457 

Wood-ticks 440 

Womb, constriction of neck of 162 

cystic disease of walls of 1JS0 

dropsy of ISO 

eversion of 176 

rupture or laceratiou of 177 

spasm of neck of 161 

twisting of neck of 160 

Worms, intestinal 37 

Wounds and their treatment 447 

by shoe-calks 366 

gunshot 453 

incised or cut 443, 447 

lacerated and contused 443, 448 

near the nostrils 89 

of the skin 443 

tendons 453 

punctured 443, 450 

Yellows 57 



